Comprehensive Rust'a Hoş Geldiniz 🦀

Bu, Google'daki Android ekibi tarafından geliştirilen ücretsiz bir Rust kursudur. Kurs, temel sözdiziminden jenerikler ve hata işleme gibi ileri düzey konulara kadar Rust'ın tüm yelpazesini kapsar.

Kursun en son sürümüne https://google.github.io/comprehensive-rust/ adresinden ulaşılabilir. Başka bir yerde okuyorsanız, lütfen güncellemeleri kontrol edin.

Kurs diğer dillerde de mevcuttur. Sayfanın sağ üst köşesinden tercih ettiğiniz dili seçin veya tüm mevcut çevirilerin listesi için Çeviriler sayfasını kontrol edin.

Kurs ayrıca PDF olarak da mevcuttur.

Kursun amacı size Rust'ı öğretmektir. Rust hakkında hiçbir şey bilmediğinizi varsayıyoruz ve şunu umuyoruz:

• Rust sözdizimi ve dili hakkında kapsamlı bir anlayış sunmayı.
• Rust'ta mevcut programları değiştirmenize ve yeni programlar yazmanıza olanak sağlamayı.
• Yaygın Rust kod kaplarını göstermeyi.

İlk dört kurs gününe Rust Esasları (Rust Fundamentals) adını veriyoruz.

Buna dayanarak, bir veya daha fazla uzmanlık konusuna dalmaya davetlisiniz:

• Android: Android platformu geliştirme (AOSP) için Rust'ın kullanımına ilişkin yarım günlük bir kurs. Buna C, C++ ve Java ile birlikte çalışabilirlik de dahildir.
• Chromium: Rust'ın Chromium tabanlı tarayıcılarda kullanılmasına ilişkin yarım günlük bir kurs. Bu, C++ ile birlikte çalışabilirliği ve üçüncü taraf kasaların Chromium'a nasıl dahil edileceğini içerir.
• Yalın-metal: Yalın sistem (gömülü) geliştirme için Rust'ın kullanımına ilişkin tam günlük bir ders. Hem mikrodenetleyiciler hem de uygulama işlemcileri kapsanmaktadır.
• Eşzamanlılık: Rust'ta eşzamanlılık üzerine tam günlük bir ders. Hem klasik eşzamanlılığı (iş parçacıkları ve muteksleri kullanarak kesintili/geçişli zamanlama) hem de async/await eşzamanlılığını (future özelliklerini kullanarak işbirlikçi çoklu görev) ele alıyoruz.

Hedef Dışı

Rust geniş bir dil ve birkaç gün içinde tamamını ele almamız mümkün olmayacak. Aşağıdakiler bu kursun amaçları dışında kalır:

• Makroların nasıl geliştirileceğini öğrenmek: lütfen bunun yerine Rust Book'ta Bölüm 19.5 ve Örneklerle Rust bakınız.

Varsayımlar

Kurs, nasıl programlanacağını zaten bildiğinizi varsayar. Rust, statik olarak türlenen bir dildir ve Rust yaklaşımını daha iyi açıklamak veya karşılaştırmak için bazen C ve C++ ile karşılaştırmalar yapacağız.

Python veya JavaScript gibi dinamik olarak yazılmış bir dilde nasıl programlanacağını biliyorsanız, o zaman da gayet iyi takip edebileceksiniz.

Kursun Çalıştırılması

Bu sayfa kurs eğitmenine yöneliktir.

Kursu Google'da dahili olarak nasıl kullandığımıza dair biraz arka plan bilgisini burada bulabilirsiniz.

Dersleri genellikle sabah 9:00'dan akşam 16:00'ya kadar yürütüyoruz ve ortasında 1 saatlik öğle yemeği arası veriyoruz. Geriye sabah dersi için 3saat, öğleden sonra dersi için ise 3 saat kalıyor. Her iki oturum da öğrencilerin alıştırmalar üzerinde çalışmaları için birden fazla ara ve zaman içerir.

Kursu çalıştırmadan önce şunları yapmak isteyeceksiniz:

1. Ders materyaline aşina olun. Önemli noktaların vurgulanmasına yardımcı olmak için konuşmacı notları ekledik (lütfen daha fazla konuşmacı notuna katkıda bulunarak bize yardımcı olun!). Sunum yaparken, konuşmacı notlarını açılır pencerede açtığınızdan emin olmalısınız ("Konuşmacı Notları"nın yanındaki küçük oklu bağlantıya tıklayın). Bu şekilde sınıfa sunacağınız temiz bir ekrana sahip olursunuz.

2. Tarihlere karar verin. Kurs en az dört tam gün sürdüğünden, günleri iki haftaya yaymanızı öneririz. Kurs katılımcıları, kursta boşluk kalmasının, onlara verdiğimiz tüm bilgileri işlemelerine yardımcı olması açısından yararlı bulduklarını belirtmişlerdir.

3. Katılımcılarınız için yeterince büyük bir oda bulun. Sınıf mevcudunun 15-25 kişilik olmasını öneriyoruz. Bu, insanların rahatça soru sorabileceği kadar küçüktür --- aynı zamanda bir eğitmenin soruları yanıtlamak için zamanının olacağı kadar da küçüktür. Odada kendiniz ve öğrencileriniz için masaların olduğundan emin olun: hepinizin oturup dizüstü bilgisayarlarınızla çalışabilmesi gerekir. Özellikle eğitmen olarak çok sayıda canlı kodlama yapacaksınız, bu nedenle kürsü size pek yardımcı olmayacaktır.

4. Kurs gününüzde, işleri ayarlamak için odaya biraz erken gelin. Doğrudan dizüstü bilgisayarınızda çalışan mdbook serve komutunu kullanarak sunum yapmanızı öneririz (kurulum talimatlarına bakın). Bu, sayfaları değiştirirken gecikme olmadan en iyi performansı sağlar. Dizüstü bilgisayarınızı kullanmak, siz veya kurs katılımcılarının tespit ettiği yazım hatalarını düzeltmenize de olanak tanır.

5. İnsanların alıştırmaları kendi başlarına veya küçük gruplar halinde çözmelerine izin verin. Genellikle sabah ve öğleden sonra alıştırmalara 30-45 dakika harcıyoruz (çözümleri gözden geçirme (review) zamanı da dahil). İnsanlara takılıp kalmadıklarını veya yardımcı olabileceğiniz bir konu olup olmadığını sorduğunuzdan emin olun. Birkaç kişinin aynı sorunu yaşadığını gördüğünüzde bunu sınıfa söyleyin ve bir çözüm önerin; örneğin insanlara standart kütüphanede ilgili bilgiyi nerede bulabileceklerini gösterin.

Hepsi bu kadar, kursta iyi şanslar! Umarız bizim için olduğu kadar sizin için de eğlenceli olur!

Kursu geliştirmeye devam edebilmemiz için lütfen sonrasında geri bildirimde bulunun. Sizin için neyin işe yaradığını ve neyin daha iyi hale getirilebileceğini duymak isteriz. Öğrencileriniz de bize geri bildirim gönderebilir!

Kurs Yapısı

Bu sayfa kurs eğitmenine yöneliktir.

Rust Esasları

İlk dört gün Rust Temelleri'ni oluşturur. Günler hızlı geçiyor ve çok fazla yol kat ediyoruz!

Kurs programı:

• 1. Gün Sabah (2 saat 5 dakika, aralar dahil)

• 1. Gün Öğleden Sonra (2 saat 35 dakika, aralar dahil)

• 2. Gün Sabah (2 saat 10 dakika, aralar dahil)

• 2. Gün Öğleden Sonra (3 saat 15 dakika, aralar dahil)

• 3. Gün Sabah (2 saat 20 dakika, aralar dahil)

• 3. Gün Öğleden Sonra (1 saat 55 dakika, aralar dahil)

• 4. Gün Sabah (2 saat 40 dakika, aralar dahil)

• 4. Gün Öğleden Sonra (2 saat 20 dakika, aralar dahil)

Derin Dalışlar

Rust'ın Esasları hakkındaki 4 günlük derse ek olarak, daha özel konuları da ele alıyoruz:

Android'de Rust

Rust in Android ayrıntılı incelemesi, Android platformu geliştirme için Rust'ı kullanma konusunda yarım günlük bir kurstur. Buna C, C++ ve Java ile birlikte çalışabilirlik (interoperability) de dahildir.

Bir AOSP kasasına ihtiyacınız olacak. Aynı makinede kurs deposunu kontrol edin ve src/android/ dizinini AOSP kasasının kök dizinine taşıyın. Bu, Android inşa (build) sisteminin src/android/ içindeki Android.bp dosyalarını görmesini sağlayacaktır.

adb sync emülatörünüzle veya gerçek cihazınızla çalıştığından emin olun ve tüm Android örneklerini src/android/build_all.sh kullanarak önceden inşa (build) edin. Çalıştırdığı komutları görmek için betiği okuyun ve bunları elle çalıştırdığınızda çalıştıklarından emin olun.

Chromium'da Rust

Chromium'da Rust'ın ayrıntılı incelemesi, Rust'ın Chromium tarayıcısının bir parçası olarak kullanılmasına ilişkin yarım günlük bir kurstur. Bu, Chromium'un gn yapı sisteminde Rust'ın kullanılmasını, üçüncü taraf kitaplıkların ("kasalar/crates") getirilmesini ve C++ ile birlikte çalışabilirliğini içerir.

You will need to be able to build Chromium --- a debug, component build is recommended for speed but any build will work. Ensure that you can run the Chromium browser that you've built.

Yalın-Sistem (Bare-metal) Rust

Yalın-Sistem Rust ayrıntılı incelemesi, yalın sistem (gömülü) geliştirme için Rust kullanımına ilişkin tam günlük bir derstir. Hem mikrodenetleyiciler hem de uygulama işlemcileri kapsanmaktadır.

Mikrodenetleyici kısmı için BBC micro:bit v2 geliştirme kartını önceden satın almanız gerekecek. Herkesin karşılama sayfasında açıklandığı gibi bir dizi paketi yüklemesi gerekecektir.

Rust'ta Eşzamanlılık

Rust'ta Eşzamanlılık ayrıntılı incelemesi, klasik ve aynı zamanda async/await eşzamanlılığı üzerine tam günlük bir derstir.

Yeni bir kasa (crate) kurulumuna ve bağımlılıkların indirilip kullanıma hazır hale getirilmesine ihtiyacınız olacak. Daha sonra örnekleri denemek için kopyalayıp src/main.rs dosyasına yapıştırabilirsiniz:

cargo init concurrency
cd concurrency
cargo add tokio --features full
cargo run

Kurs programı:

• Sabah (3 saat 20 dakika, aralar dahil)

• Öğleden Sonra (3 saat 20 dakika, aralar dahil)

Format

Kursun çok etkileşimli olması amaçlanıyor ve soruların Rust'ın keşfini yönlendirmesine izin vermenizi öneririz!

Klavye Kısayolları

Bu mdBook'ta birkaç kullanışlı klavye kısayolu vardır:

• Arrow-Left: Önceki sayfaya gidin.
• Arrow-Right: Sonraki sayfaya gidin.
• Ctrl + Enter: Odaklı kod örneğini yürütün.
• s: Arama çubuğunu etkinleştirin.

Çeviriler

Kurs bir grup harika gönüllüler tarafından diğer dillere çevrildi:

• Brezilya Portekizcesi yazanlar: @rastringer, @hugojacob, @joaovicmendes ve @henrif75.
• Çince (Basitleştirilmiş) yazanlar: @suetfei, @wnghl, @anlunx, @kongy, @noahdragon, @superwhd, @SketchK ve @nodmp.
• Çince (Geleneksel) yazanlar: @hueich, @victorhsieh, @mingyc, @kuanhungchen ve @johnathan79717.
• Farsça yazanlar: @DannyRavi, @javad-jafari, @Alix1383, @moaminsharifi, @hamidrezakp ve @mehrad77.
• Japonca yazanlar: @CoinEZ-JPN, @momotaro1105 .com/momotaro1105), @HidenoriKobayashi ve @kantasv.
• Korece yazanlar: @keispace, @jiyongp /jiyongp), @jooyunghan ve @namhyung.
• Bengalce yazanlar: @raselmandol.
• Ukraynaca yazanlar: @git-user-cpp, @yaremam ve @reta.
• Farsça yazanlar: @DannyRavi, @javad-jafari, @Alix1383, @moaminsharifi, @hamidrezakp ve @mehrad77.

Diller arasında geçiş yapmak için sağ üst köşedeki dil seçiciyi kullanın.

Tamamlanmamış Çeviriler

Devam eden çok sayıda çeviri var. En son güncellenen çevirilere bağlantı veriyoruz:

• Arapça yazanlar: @younies
• Bengalce yazanlar: @raselmandol.
• Fransızca yazanlar: @KookaS, @vcaen /vcaen) ve @AdrienBaudemont.
• Almanca yazanlar: @Throvn ve @ronaldfw /ronaldfw).
• İtalyanca yazanlar: @henrythebuilder ve @detro.

Çevirilerin tam listesi ve güncel durumları son güncelleme tarihi itibarıyla veya kursun en son sürümüyle senkronize edilmiş olarak da mevcuttur.

Bu çabaya yardımcı olmak istiyorsanız nasıl başlayacağınızı öğrenmek için lütfen talimatlarımıza bakın. Çeviriler sorun izleyicide üzerinde koordine edilir.

Cargo'yu Kullanmak

Rust hakkında okumaya başladığınızda, Rust ekosisteminde Rust uygulamalarını inşa etmek (build) ve çalıştırmak için kullanılan standart araç Cargo ile yakında tanışacaksınız. Burada Cargo'nun ne olduğuna, daha geniş ekosisteme nasıl uyum sağladığına ve bu eğitime nasıl uyduğuna dair kısa bir genel bakış sunmak istiyoruz.

Kurulum

Lütfen https://rustup.rs/ adresindeki talimatları izleyin.

Bu size Cargo oluşturma aracını (cargo) ve Rust derleyicisini (rustc) sağlayacaktır. Ayrıca, araç zincirlerini (toolchain) kurmak/değiştirmek, çapraz derlemeyi ayarlamak vb. için kullanabileceğiniz bir komut satırı yardımcı programı olan rustup a sahip olacaksınız.

Rust'u kurduktan sonra editörünüzü/düzenleyicinizi veya IDE'nizi Rust ile çalışacak şekilde yapılandırmalısınız. Çoğu editör bunu, VS Code, Emacs, [Vim/Neovim](https://rust-analyzer.github.io/manual. html#vimneovim) ve diğerleri için otomatik tamamlama ve tanıma atlama işlevi sağlayan rust-analyzer ile haberleşerek yapar. Ayrıca RustRover adında farklı bir IDE de mevcuttur.

Rust Ekosistemi

Rust ekosistemi bir dizi araçtan oluşur; bunların başlıcaları şunlardır:

• rustc: .rs dosyalarını ikili (binary) dosyalara ve diğer ara biçimlere (format) dönüştüren Rust derleyicisi.

• cargo: Rust bağımlılık yöneticisi ve inşa (build) aracı. Cargo, genellikle https://crates.io üzerinde barındırılan bağımlılıkları nasıl indireceğini bilir ve projenizi oluştururken bunları rustc derleyicisine aktarır. Cargo ayrıca birim testlerini yürütmek için kullanılan yerleşik bir test çalıştırıcısıyla birlikte gelir.

• rustup: Rust araç zinciri (toolchain) yükleyicisi ve güncelleyicisi. Bu araç, Rust'ın yeni sürümleri yayınlandığında rustc ve cargo programlarını yüklemek ve güncellemek için kullanılır. Ek olarak, rustup standart kitaplık için belgeleri de indirebilir. Aynı anda birden fazla Rust sürümünü yükleyebilirsiniz ve rustup gerektiğinde bunlar arasında geçiş yapmanıza olanak tanır.

Bu Eğitimdeki Kod Örnekleri

Bu eğitimde çoğunlukla Rust dilini tarayıcınız üzerinden yürütebileceğiniz örnekler üzerinden inceleyeceğiz. Bu, kurulumu çok daha kolay hale getirir ve herkes için tutarlı bir deneyim sağlar.

Cargo'nun kurulumu hala teşvik edilmektedir: alıştırmaları yapmanızı kolaylaştıracaktır. Son gün, bağımlılıklarla nasıl çalışacağınızı ve bunun için Cargo'ya ihtiyacınız olduğunu gösteren daha büyük bir alıştırma yapacağız.

Bu kurstaki kod blokları tamamen etkileşimlidir:

fn main() {
    println!("Düzenle beni!");
}

Metin kutusu odaklanmışken kodu çalıştırmak için Ctrl + Enter tuşlarını kullanabilirsiniz.

Cargo'nun Yerel (Local) Olarak Çalıştırılması

Kodu kendi sisteminizde denemek istiyorsanız, önce Rust'u yüklemeniz gerekecektir. Bunu Rust Book'taki talimatları uygulayarak yapın. Bu size çalışan bir rustc ve cargovermelidir. Bu yazının yazıldığı sırada en son kararlı Rust sürümü şu sürüm numaralarına sahiptir:

% rustc --version
rustc 1.69.0 (84c898d65 2023-04-16)
% cargo --version
cargo 1.69.0 (6e9a83356 2023-04-12)

Rust geriye dönük uyumluluğu koruduğu için daha sonraki herhangi bir sürümü de kullanabilirsiniz.

Bunu yaptıktan sonra, bu eğitimdeki örneklerden birinden bir Rust ikili (binary) programı oluşturmak için şu adımları izleyin:

1. Kopyalamak istediğiniz örneğin üzerindeki "Panoya kopyala" düğmesine tıklayın.

2. Kodunuz için yeni bir exercise/ dizini oluşturmak için cargo new exercise komutunu kullanın:

   $ cargo new exercise
        Created binary (application) `exercise` package
   

3. İkili (binary) dosyanızı inşa etmek (build) ve çalıştırmak için exercise/ dizinine gidin ve cargo run komutunu kullanın:

   $ cd exercise
   $ cargo run
      Compiling exercise v0.1.0 (/home/mgeisler/tmp/exercise)
       Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.75s
        Running `target/debug/exercise`
   Hello, world!
   

4. src/main.rs dosyasındaki hazır kodu kendi kodunuzla değiştirin. Örneğin, önceki sayfadaki örneği kullanarak src/main.rs dosyasının şu şekilde görünmesini sağlayın

   fn main() {
       println!("Düzenle beni!");
   }

5. Güncellenmiş ikili (binary) dosyanızı inşa etmek (build) ve çalıştırmak (run) için cargo run komutunu kullanın:

   $ cargo run
      Compiling exercise v0.1.0 (/home/mgeisler/tmp/exercise)
       Finished dev [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.24s
        Running `target/debug/exercise`
   Edit me!
   

6. Projenizi hatalara karşı hızlı bir şekilde kontrol etmek için cargo check komutunu kullanın, çalıştırmadan derlemek için cargo build komutunu kullanın. Normal bir hata ayıklama inşasında (build) çıktıyı target/debug/ içinde bulacaksınız. target/release/ içinde optimize edilmiş bir sürüm inşası oluşturmak için cargo build --release komutunu kullanın.

7. Cargo.toml dosyasını düzenleyerek projeniz için bağımlılıklar ekleyebilirsiniz. cargo komutlarını çalıştırdığınızda, eksik bağımlılıkları sizin için otomatik olarak indirip derleyecektir.

1. Gün'e Hoş Geldiniz

Rust Esasları'nın ilk günü. Bugün çok fazla konuyu ele alacağız:

• Temel Rust sözdizimi: değişkenler, skaler ve bileşik türleri, numaralandırma türleri (enums), yapılar (structs), referanslar, fonksiyonlar ve metotlar.
• Türler ve tür çıkarımı.
• Kontrol akışı yapıları (constructs): döngüler, koşullar vb.
• Kullanıcı tanımlı türler: yapılar (structs) ve numaralandırmalar (enums)
• Desen eşleştirme: numaralandırmaların (enums), yapıların ve dizilerin çözümlenmesi (destructuring).

Zamanlama (Schedule)

Bu oturum 10 dakikalık aralar dahil yaklaşık 2 saat 5 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Merhaba, Dünya

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 15 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Rust Nedir?

Rust, 2015'te 1.0 sürümü çıkan yeni bir programlama dilidir:

• Rust, C++ ile benzer role sahip statik olarak derlenmiş bir dildir
  • rustc arka tarafta (backend) LLVM'yi kullanır.
• Rust birçok platformu ve mimariyi destekler:
  • x86, ARM, WebAssembly, ...
  • Linux, Mac, Windows, ...
• Rust çok çeşitli cihazlarda kullanılır:
  • donanım yazılımlarında (firmwares) ve önyükleyicilerde (boot loaders),
  • akıllı ekranlarda,
  • cep telefonlarında,
  • masaüstü bilgisayarlarda,
  • sunucularda.

Rust'ın Faydaları

Rust'ın bazı benzersiz yok satan noktaları:

• Derleme zamanı bellek emniyeti - derleme zamanında tüm bellek hataları sınıfları önlenir

  • İlklendirilmemiş değişken yok.
  • Adresi iki kez serbest bırakma (double free) yok.
  • Serbest bıraktıktan sonra kullanma (use after free) yok.
  • NULL göstericileri yok.
  • Unutulan kilitli muteksler yok.
  • İş parçacıkları (threads) arasında veri yarışları (data races) yok.
  • Adımlayıcıyı (iterator) geçersiz kılma (invalidation) yok.

• Tanımsız çalışma zamanı davranışı yok - Bir Rust deyiminin yaptığı şey hiçbir zaman belirtilmemiş (unspecified) olarak bırakılmaz

  • Dizi erişiminde sınırlar kontrol edilir.
  • Tamsayı taşması tanımlandı (panic veya wrap-around).

• Modern dil özellikleri - üst seviye diller kadar etkileyici ve ergonomik

  • Numaralandırmalar (Enums) ve desen eşleştirme.
  • Jenerikler.
  • FFI ek yükü yok.
  • Sıfır maliyetli soyutlamalar.
  • Mükemmel derleyici hata mesajları.
  • Yerleşik bağımlılık yöneticisi.
  • Test için yerleşik destek.
  • Mükemmel Dil Sunucusu Protokolü (Language Server Protocol) desteği.

Deneme Alanı (Playground)

Rust Deneme Alanı kısa Rust programlarını çalıştırmanın kolay bir yolunu sunar ve bu kurstaki örnekler ve alıştırmaların temelini oluşturur. Deneme alanında "merhaba-dünya" ile başlayan programı çalıştırmayı deneyin. Deneme alanı birkaç kullanışlı özellik ile birlikte gelir:

• Kodunuzu "standart" şekilde biçimlendirmek için "Tools" altında rustfmt seçeneğini kullanın.

• Rust kodu oluşturmak için iki ana "profil" (profile) vardır: Hata ayıklama (ekstra çalışma zamanı kontrolleri, daha az optimizasyon) ve Sürüm (release) (daha az çalışma zamanı kontrolü, çok fazla optimizasyon). Bunlara üst kısımdaki "Hata Ayıklama" bölümünden erişilebilir.

• Eğer ilgileniyorsanız, oluşturulan asm kodunu görmek için "..." altındaki "ASM"yi kullanın.

Türler ve Değerler

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 40 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Merhaba, Dünya

Mümkün olan en basit Rust programına, klasik bir Merhaba Dünya programına geçelim:

fn main() {
    println!("Merhaba 🌍!");
}

Ne görüyorsunuz:

• Fonksiyonlar fn ile tanıtılır.
• Bloklar, C ve C++'daki gibi küme parantezleriyle sınırları belirlenmiştir.
• main fonksiyon programın giriş noktasıdır (entry point).
• Rust arınmış/pak/izole (hygienic) makrolara sahiptir, println! buna bir örnektir.
• Rust dilinindeki dizeler (strings) UTF-8 olarak kodlanmıştır ve herhangi bir Unicode karakteri içerebilir.

Değişkenler

Rust, statik tür özelliğine sahip olmasıyla tür emniyeti sağlar. Değişken bağlamaları (binding) let ile yapılır:

fn main() {
    let x: i32 = 10;
    println!("x: {x}");
    // x = 20;
    // println!("x: {x}");
}

Değerler

Burada bazı temel yerleşik türler ve her türün değişmez değerlerinin (literal values) sözdizimi (syntax) verilmiştir.

Türlerin genişlikleri/boyutları aşağıdaki gibidir:

• iN, uN ve fN türleri N bit genişliğinde,
• isize ve usize türleri göstericinin genişliğinde,
• char türü 32 bit genişliğinde,
• bool türü 8 bit genişliğinde.

Aritmetik

fn interproduct(a: i32, b: i32, c: i32) -> i32 {
    return a * b + b * c + c * a;
}

fn main() {
    println!("sonuç: {}", interproduct(120, 100, 248));
}

Tür Çıkarımı

Rust, türü belirlemek için değişkenin nasıl kullanıldığına bakacak:

fn takes_u32(x: u32) {
    println!("u32: {x}");
}

fn takes_i8(y: i8) {
    println!("i8: {y}");
}

fn main() {
    let x = 10;
    let y = 20;

    takes_u32(x);
    takes_i8(y);
    // takes_u32(y);
}

fn main() {
    let x = 3.14;
    let y = 20;
    assert_eq!(x, y);
    // HATA: `{float} == {integer}` için gerçekleştirim-uyarlama (implementation) yok
}

Alıştırma: Fibonacci

Fibonacci dizisi [0,1] ile başlar. n>1 için, n'inci Fibonacci sayısı yinelemeli olarak n-1'inci ve n-2'inci Fibonacci sayılarının toplamı olarak hesaplanır.

N'inci Fibonacci sayısını hesaplayan bir fib(n) fonksiyonu yazın. Bu fonksiyon ne zaman paniğe kapılacak?

fn fib(n: u32) -> u32 {
    if n < 2 {
        // Temel durum.
        todo!("Bunu gerçekleştirin (implement)")
    } else {
        // Özyinelemeli durum.
        todo!("Bunu gerçekleştirin (implement)")
    }
}

fn main() {
    let n = 20;
    println!("fib({n}) = {}", fib(n));
}

Çözüm

fn fib(n: u32) -> u32 {
    if n < 2 {
        return n;
    } else {
        return fib(n - 1) + fib(n - 2);
    }
}

fn main() {
    let n = 20;
    println!("fib({n}) = {}", fib(n));
}

Kontrol Akışı Temelleri

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 40 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

if ifadeleri

if ifadelerini tam olarak diğer dillerdeki if deyimleri (statement) gibi kullanabilirsiniz:

fn main() {
    let x = 10;
    if x == 0 {
        println!("sıfır!");
    } else if x < 100 {
        println!("büyükçe");
    } else {
        println!("aşırı büyük");
    }
}

Ayrıca, if'i ifade (expresssion) olarak da kullanabilirsiniz. Her bloğun son ifadesi if ifadesinin değeri olur:

fn main() {
    let x = 10;
    let size = if x < 20 { "küçük" } else { "büyük" };
    println!("sayının boyutu: {}", size);
}

Döngüler

Rust dilinde üç döngüsel anahtar kelime vardır: while, loop, ve for:

while

while anahtar kelimesi diğer dillerdeki gibi işler ve koşul doğru olduğu sürece döngü gövdesini yürütür (execute).

fn main() {
    let mut x = 200;
    while x >= 10 {
        x = x / 2;
    }
    println!("Son x: {x}");
}

for

for döngüsü değer aralıkları veya bir koleksiyondaki öğeler üzerinde tekrarlar:

fn main() {
    for x in 1..5 {
        println!("x: {x}");
    }

    for elem in [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] {
        println!("elem: {elem}");
    }
}

loop

loop deyimi, bir break'e kadar sonsuz döner.

fn main() {
    let mut i = 0;
    loop {
        i += 1;
        println!("{i}");
        if i > 100 {
            break;
        }
    }
}

break ve continue

Bir sonraki adıma hemen başlamak istiyorsanız continue kullanın.

Herhangi bir döngüden erken çıkmak istiyorsanız, break kullanın. loop ile, loop ifadesinin değeri haline gelen isteğe bağlı bir ifade alabilir.

fn main() {
    let mut i = 0;
    loop {
        i += 1;
        if i > 5 {
            break;
        }
        if i % 2 == 0 {
            continue;
        }
        println!("{}", i);
    }
}

Etiketler

Hem continue ve break isteğe bağlı olarak iç içe geçmiş döngülerden çıkmak için kullanılan bir etiket (label) argümanını alabilir:

fn main() {
    let s = [[5, 6, 7], [8, 9, 10], [21, 15, 32]];
    let mut elements_searched = 0;
    let target_value = 10;
    'outer: for i in 0..=2 {
        for j in 0..=2 {
            elements_searched += 1;
            if s[i][j] == target_value {
                break 'outer;
            }
        }
    }
    print!("aranan öğeler: {elements_searched}");
}

Bloklar ve Kapsamlar

Bloklar

Rust dilindeki bir blok, {} parantezleri içine alınmış bir ifadeler dizisi (sequence of expressions) içerir. Her bloğun, bloğun son ifadesine ait olan bir değeri ve türü vardır:

fn main() {
    let z = 13;
    let x = {
        let y = 10;
        println!("y: {y}");
        z - y
    };
    println!("x: {x}");
}

Son ifade ; ile bitiyorsa, ortaya çıkan değer ve tür () olur.

Kapsamlar (Scopes) ve Gölgeleme (Shadowing)

Bir değişkenin kapsamı (scope) onu çevreleyen blokla sınırlıdır.

Hem dış kapsamlardaki (outer scopes) değişkenleri hem de aynı kapsamdaki değişkenleri gölgeleyebilirsiniz (shadow):

fn main() {
    let a = 10;
    println!("önce: {a}");
    {
        let a = "merhaba";
        println!("iç kapsam: {a}");

        let a = true;
        println!("iç kapsamda gölgelendi: {a}");
    }

    println!("sonra: {a}");
}

Fonksiyonlar

fn gcd(a: u32, b: u32) -> u32 {
    if b > 0 {
        gcd(b, a % b)
    } else {
        a
    }
}

fn main() {
    println!("gcd: {}", gcd(143, 52));
}

Makrolar

Makrolar, derleme sırasında Rust koduna genişletilir ve değişken sayıda argüman alabilir. Sonunda ! işaretiyle ayırt edilirler. Rust standart kütüphanesi çeşitli yararlı makrolar içerir.

• println!(format, ..), std::fmt'de açıklanan biçimi uygulayarak standart çıktıya bir satır yazdırır.
• format!(format, ..) tıpkı println! gibi işler ancak sonucu bir dize (string) olarak geri döndürür.
• dbg!(expression) ifadenin değerini kayıt tutar (loggging) ve onu geri döndürür.
• todo!() kodun bir kısmını henüz uygulanmamış (not-yet-implemented) olarak işaretler. Eğer yürütülürse (execute), paniğe neden olur.
• unreachable!() kodun bir kısmını erişilemez (unreachable) olarak işaretler. Eğer yürütülürse, paniğe neden olur.

fn factorial(n: u32) -> u32 {
    let mut product = 1;
    for i in 1..=n {
        product *= dbg!(i);
    }
    product
}

fn fizzbuzz(n: u32) -> u32 {
    todo!()
}

fn main() {
    let n = 4;
    println!("{n}! = {}", factorial(n));
}

Alıştırma: Collatz Sekansı

Collatz sanısı, sıfırdan büyük herhangi bir n₁ için aşağıdaki şekilde tanımlanır:

• Eğer n_i 1 ise, dizi n_i'de sonlanır.
• Eğer n_i çift ise, o zaman n_i+1 = n_i / 2.
• Eğer n_i tek sayı ise n_i+1 = 3 * n_i + 1.

Örneğin, n₁ = 3 ile başalrsak:

• 3 tek sayıdır, dolayısıyla n₂ = 3 * 3 + 1 = 10;
• 10 çift sayıdır, dolayısıyla n₃ = 10 / 2 = 5;
• 5 tek sayıdır, dolayısıyla n₄ = 3 * 5 + 1 = 16;
• 16 çift sayıdır, dolayısıyla n₅ = 16 / 2 = 8;
• 8 çift sayıdır, dolayısıyla n₆ = 8 / 2 = 4;
• 4 çift sayıdır, dolayısıyla n₇ = 4 / 2 = 2;
• 2 çifttir, bu yüzden n₈ = 1; ve
• sekans sonlandırılır.

Belirli bir başlangıç n için collatz sekansının uzunluğunu hesaplayan bir fonksiyon yazın.

/// `n`'den başlayan collatz sekansının uzunluğunu belirle.
fn collatz_length(mut n: i32) -> u32 {
  todo!("Bunu gerçekleştirin (implement)")
}

#[test]
fn test_collatz_length() {
    assert_eq!(collatz_length(11), 15);
}

fn main() {
    println!("Length: {}", collatz_length(11));
}

Çözüm

/// `n`'den başlayan collatz sekansının uzunluğunu belirle.
fn collatz_length(mut n: i32) -> u32 {
    let mut len = 1;
    while n > 1 {
        n = if n % 2 == 0 { n / 2 } else { 3 * n + 1 };
        len += 1;
    }
    len
}

#[test]
fn test_collatz_length() {
    assert_eq!(collatz_length(11), 15);
}

fn main() {
    println!("Length: {}", collatz_length(11));
}

Tekrar Hoş Geldiniz

10 dakikalık aralar, bu oturum yaklaşık 2 saat 35 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Demetler (Tuples) ve Diziler (Arrays)

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 35 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Diziler

fn main() {
    let mut a: [i8; 10] = [42; 10];
    a[5] = 0;
    println!("a: {a:?}");
}

Demetler

fn main() {
    let t: (i8, bool) = (7, true);
    println!("t.0: {}", t.0);
    println!("t.1: {}", t.1);
}

Dizi Adımlama (Iteration)

'for' deyimi diziler üzerinde adımlamayı/dolaşmayı destekler (ancak demetler (tuples) üzerinde desteklemez).

fn main() {
    let primes = [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19];
    for prime in primes {
        for i in 2..prime {
            assert_ne!(prime % i, 0);
        }
    }
}

Desenler ve Çözümlenme (Destructuring)

Demetler (tuples) ve diğer yapılandırılmış değerlerle (structured values) çalışırken, içteki değerleri yerel (local) değişkenlere çıkarmayı istemek yaygındır. Bu, doğrudan iç değerlere erişilerek elle yapılabilir:

fn print_tuple(tuple: (i32, i32)) {
    let left = tuple.0;
    let right = tuple.1;
    println!("sol: {left}, sağ: {right}");
}

Ancak, Rust daha büyük bir değeri kendisini oluşturan parçalara çözümlemek (destructure) için desen eşleştirmeyi (pattern matching) kullanmayı da destekliyor:

fn print_tuple(tuple: (i32, i32)) {
    let (left, right) = tuple;
    println!("sol: {left}, sağ: {right}");
}

Alıştırma: İçiçe Diziler

Diziler başka diziler de içerebilir:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let array = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]];
}

Bu değişkenin türü nedir?

Bir matrisin devrini yapacak (satırları sütunlara çevirecek) transpose fonksiyonu yazmak için yukarıdaki gibi bir dizi kullanın:

Aşağıdaki kodu https://play.rust-lang.org/ adresine kopyalayın ve fonksiyonu uygulayın (implement). Bu fonksiyon yalnızca 3x3'lük matrislerde çalışır.

// TODO: uyarlamanız (implementation) bittiğinde bu yorum satırını silin.
#![allow(unused_variables, dead_code)]

fn transpose(matrix: [[i32; 3]; 3]) -> [[i32; 3]; 3] {
    unimplemented!()
}

#[test]
fn test_transpose() {
    let matrix = [
        [101, 102, 103], //
        [201, 202, 203],
        [301, 302, 303],
    ];
    let transposed = transpose(matrix);
    assert_eq!(
        transposed,
        [
            [101, 201, 301], //
            [102, 202, 302],
            [103, 203, 303],
        ]
    );
}

fn main() {
    let matrix = [
        [101, 102, 103], // <-- bu yorum, rustfmt'nin yeni satır eklemesini sağlar
        [201, 202, 203],
        [301, 302, 303],
    ];

    println!("matrix: {:#?}", matrix);
    let transposed = transpose(matrix);
    println!("transposed: {:#?}", transposed);
}

Çözüm

fn transpose(matrix: [[i32; 3]; 3]) -> [[i32; 3]; 3] {
    let mut result = [[0; 3]; 3];
    for i in 0..3 {
        for j in 0..3 {
            result[j][i] = matrix[i][j];
        }
    }
    result
}

#[test]
fn test_transpose() {
    let matrix = [
        [101, 102, 103], //
        [201, 202, 203],
        [301, 302, 303],
    ];
    let transposed = transpose(matrix);
    assert_eq!(
        transposed,
        [
            [101, 201, 301], //
            [102, 202, 302],
            [103, 203, 303],
        ]
    );
}

fn main() {
    let matrix = [
        [101, 102, 103], // <-- bu yorum, rustfmt'nin yeni satır eklemesini sağlar
        [201, 202, 203],
        [301, 302, 303],
    ];

    println!("matrix: {:#?}", matrix);
    let transposed = transpose(matrix);
    println!("transposed: {:#?}", transposed);
}

Referanslar

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 55 dakika sürmelidir. İçerir:

Paylaşılan Referanslar

Bir referans, değerin sahipliğini almadan başka bir değere erişmenin bir yolunu sağlar ve "ödünç alma (borrowing)" olarak da adlandırılır. Paylaşılan referanslar (shared reference) salt okunurdur (read-only) ve referans edilen veriler değiştirilemez.

fn main() {
    let a = 'A';
    let b = 'B';
    let mut r: &char = &a;
    println!("r: {}", *r);
    r = &b;
    println!("r: {}", *r);
}

T türüne yönelik paylaşılan referansın türü &T'dir. & operatörüyle bir referans değeri (reference value) oluşturulur. * operatörü bir referansın içeriğine eriştirir (dereference) ve onun değerini verir.

Rust, boşa düşen referansları (dangling references) statik olarak yasaklayacaktır:

fn x_axis(x: &i32) -> &(i32, i32) {
    let point = (*x, 0);
    return &point;
}

Özel (Exclusive) Referanslar

Değiştirilebilir referanslar (mutable reference) olarak da bilinen özel (exclusive) referanslar, atıfta bulundukları (refer) değerin değiştirilmesine olanak tanır. &mut T türüne sahiplerdir.

fn main() {
    let mut point = (1, 2);
    let x_coord = &mut point.0;
    *x_coord = 20;
    println!("point: {point:?}");
}

Dilimler (Slices)

Bir dilim (slice) size daha büyük bir koleksiyonun içinden bir görüntü verir:

fn main() {
    let mut a: [i32; 6] = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60];
    println!("a: {a:?}");

    let s: &[i32] = &a[2..4];

    println!("s: {s:?}");
}

• Dilimler (slice), dilimlenmiş türden verileri ödünç alır (borrowing).

Dizeler (Strings)

Artık Rust'taki iki dize (string) türünü anlayabiliyoruz:

• &str, &[u8]e benzer şekilde, UTF-8 olarak kodlanmış baytların bir dilimidir (slice).
• String, Vec<T>ye benzer şekildedir, UTF-8 olarak kodlanmış baytlardan oluşan sahipli bir arabellektir.

fn main() {
    let s1: &str = "Dünya";
    println!("s1: {s1}");

    let mut s2: String = String::from("Merhaba ");
    println!("s2: {s2}");
    s2.push_str(s1);
    println!("s2: {s2}");

    let s3: &str = &s2[s2.len() - s1.len()..];
    println!("s3: {s3}");
}

Alıştırma: Geometri

3 boyutlu geometri için, bir noktayı [f64;3] olarak temsil eden birkaç yardımcı fonksiyon oluşturacağız. Fonksiyon imzalarını belirlemek size kalmış.

// Bir vektörün büyüklüğünü, koordinatlarının karelerini toplayarak hesaplayın
// ve karekökünü alın. Karekökü hesaplamak için `sqrt()` metodunu kullanın,
// örneğin `v.sqrt()` gibi.


fn magnitude(...) -> f64 {
    todo!()
}

// Bir vektörü, büyüklüğünü hesaplayarak ve tüm koordinatlarını bu büyüklüğe
// bölererek normalize edin.


fn normalize(...) {
    todo!()
}

// Çalışmanızı test etmek için aşağıdaki `main` fonksiyonunu kullanın.

fn main() {
    println!("Birim vektörünün büyüklüğü: {}", magnitude(&[0.0, 1.0, 0.0]));

    let mut v = [1.0, 2.0, 9.0];
    println!("{v:?} vektörünün büyüklüğü: {}", magnitude(&v));
    normalize(&mut v);
    println!("Normalize edildikten sonra {v:?} vektörünün büyüklüğü: {}", magnitude(&v));
}

Çözüm

/// Verilen vektörün büyüklüğünü hesaplayın.
fn magnitude(vector: &[f64; 3]) -> f64 {
    let mut mag_squared = 0.0;
    for coord in vector {
        mag_squared += coord * coord;
    }
    mag_squared.sqrt()
}

/// Vektörün büyüklüğünü, yönünü değiştirmeden 1.0'a değiştirin.
fn normalize(vector: &mut [f64; 3]) {
    let mag = magnitude(vector);
    for item in vector {
        *item /= mag;
    }
}

fn main() {
    println!("Birim vektörünün büyüklüğü: {}", magnitude(&[0.0, 1.0, 0.0]));

    let mut v = [1.0, 2.0, 9.0];
    println!("{v:?} vektörünün büyüklüğü: {}", magnitude(&v));
    normalize(&mut v);
    println!("Normalize edildikten sonra {v:?} vektörünün büyüklüğü: {}", magnitude(&v));
}

Kullanıcı Tanımlı Türler

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 50 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

İsimli Yapılar

C ve C++ dillerindeki gibi Rust'ın da özel (kullanıcı tanımlı) yapılara desteği vardır:

struct Person {
    name: String,
    age: u8,
}

fn describe(person: &Person) {
    println!("{} {} yaşında", person.name, person.age);
}

fn main() {
    let mut peter = Person { name: String::from("Peter"), age: 27 };
    describe(&peter);

    peter.age = 28;
    describe(&peter);

    let name = String::from("Avery");
    let age = 39;
    let avery = Person { name, age };
    describe(&avery);

    let jackie = Person { name: String::from("Jackie"), ..avery };
    describe(&jackie);
}

Demet Yapıları (Tuple Structs)

Alan adları (field names) önemsizse demet (tuple) yapısını kullanabilirsiniz:

struct Point(i32, i32);

fn main() {
    let p = Point(17, 23);
    println!("({}, {})", p.0, p.1);
}

Bu genellikle tek alanlı sarmalayıcılar (single-field wrappers - newtype deseni olarak adlandırılır) için kullanılır:

struct PoundsOfForce(f64);
struct Newtons(f64);

fn compute_thruster_force() -> PoundsOfForce {
    todo!("NASA'daki bir roket bilim adamına sorun")
}

fn set_thruster_force(force: Newtons) {
    // ...
}

fn main() {
    let force = compute_thruster_force();
    set_thruster_force(force);
}

Enumlar

'enum' anahtar sözcüğü birkaç farklı varyanta sahip bir türün yaratılmasına olanak sağlar:

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    Left,
    Right,
}

#[derive(Debug)]
enum PlayerMove {
    Pass,                        // Basit (simple) varyant
    Run(Direction),              // Demet (Tuple) varyantı
    Teleport { x: u32, y: u32 }, // Yapı (Struct) varyantı
}

fn main() {
    let player_move: PlayerMove = PlayerMove::Run(Direction::Left);
    println!("Sıradaki hamle: {player_move:?}");
}

const

Sabitler (constants) derleme zamanında (compile-time) değerlendirilir ve değerleri kullanıldıkları her yerde satır içi (inline) olarak belirtilir:

const DIGEST_SIZE: usize = 3;
const ZERO: Option<u8> = Some(42);

fn compute_digest(text: &str) -> [u8; DIGEST_SIZE] {
    let mut digest = [ZERO.unwrap_or(0); DIGEST_SIZE];
    for (idx, &b) in text.as_bytes().iter().enumerate() {
        digest[idx % DIGEST_SIZE] = digest[idx % DIGEST_SIZE].wrapping_add(b);
    }
    digest
}

fn main() {
    let digest = compute_digest("Hello");
    println!("digest: {digest:?}");
}

Rust RFC Book'a göre bunlar kullanım sırasında satır içidir (inline).

Sadece const olarak işaretlenen fonksiyonlar derleme zamanında çağrılarak const değerler üretilebilir. Ancak const fonksiyonlar çalışma zamanında da çağrılabilir.

static

Statik değişkenler programın tüm yürütmesi (execution) boyunca yaşayacak ve bu nedenle taşınmayacaklar:

static BANNER: &str = "RustOS 3.14'e Hoş Geldiniz";

fn main() {
    println!("{BANNER}");
}

Rust RFC Kitabında belirtildiği gibi, statik kullanımı satır içi (inline) özelliği vermez ve gerçek bir ilişkili bellek konumuna sahiptir. Bu, emniyetsiz ve gömülü kod için yararlıdır ve değişken, program yürütmesinin tamamı boyunca yaşar. Global kapsamlı (globally-scoped) bir değerin nesne kimliğine ihtiyaç duyması için bir nedeni olmadığında, genellikle const tercih edilir.

Tür Eş İsimleri (Type Aliases)

Bir tür eş ismi, başka bir tür için bir isim oluşturur. Her iki tür de birbirinin yerine kullanılabilir.

enum CarryableConcreteItem {
    Left,
    Right,
}

type Item = CarryableConcreteItem;

// Eş isimler (aliases) uzun ve karmaşık türlerde daha kullanışlıdır:
use std::cell::RefCell;
use std::sync::{Arc, RwLock};
type PlayerInventory = RwLock<Vec<Arc<RefCell<Item>>>>;

Alıştırma: Asansör Olayları

Bir asansör kontrol sistemindeki bir olayı temsil etmek için bir veri yapısı oluşturacağız. Çeşitli olayları yapılandırmak için türleri ve fonksiyonları tanımlamak size kalmış. Türlerin {:?} ile biçimlendirilmesine izin vermek için #[derive(Debug)] kullanın.

Bu alıştırma yalnızca, main'in hatasız çalışması için veri yapıları oluşturmayı ve doldurmayı gerektirir. Kursun bir sonraki kısmı bu yapılardan veri almayı kapsayacaktır.

#[derive(Debug)]
/// Asansör sisteminde kontrolörün tepki vermesi gereken bir olay.
enum Event {
    // TODO: gerekli değişkeleri (variant) ekle
}

/// Bir seyahat yönü.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    Up,
    Down,
}

/// Araba verilen kata ulaşmış durumda.
fn car_arrived(floor: i32) -> Event {
    todo!()
}

/// Araba kapıları açılmış durumda.
fn car_door_opened() -> Event {
    todo!()
}

/// Araba kapıları kapanmış durumda.
fn car_door_closed() -> Event {
    todo!()
}

/// Verilen kattaki asansör lobisinde yön düğmesine basıldı.
fn lobby_call_button_pressed(floor: i32, dir: Direction) -> Event {
    todo!()
}

/// Asansör kabininde bir kat düğmesine basıldı.
fn car_floor_button_pressed(floor: i32) -> Event {
    todo!()
}

fn main() {
    println!(
        "Zemin kattaki bir yolcu yukarı düğmesine basmış durumda: {:?}",
        lobby_call_button_pressed(0, Direction::Up)
    );
    println!("Araba zemin kata ulaşmış durumda: {:?}", car_arrived(0));
    println!("Araba kapısı açıldı: {:?}", car_door_opened());
    println!(
        "Bir yolcu 3. katın düğmesine basmış durumda: {:?}",
        car_floor_button_pressed(3)
    );
    println!("Araba kapısı kapandı: {:?}", car_door_closed());
    println!("Araba 3. kata ulaşmış durumda: {:?}", car_arrived(3));
}

Çözüm

#[derive(Debug)]
/// Asansör sisteminde kontrolörün tepki vermesi gereken bir olay.
enum Event {
    /// Bir düğmeye basıldı.
    ButtonPressed(Button),

    /// Araba verilen kata ulaşmış durumda.
    CarArrived(Floor),

    /// Arabanın kapıları açık durumda.
    CarDoorOpened,

    /// Arabanın kapıları kapalı durumda.
    CarDoorClosed,
}

/// Bir kat tamsayı olarak temsil edilir.
type Floor = i32;

/// Bir seyahat yönü.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    Up,
    Down,
}

/// Kullanıcının erişebileceği bir düğme.
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Button {
    /// Verilem katta asansör lobisinde bulunan bir düğme.
    LobbyCall(Direction, Floor),

    /// Arabanın içindeki bir kat düğmesi.
    CarFloor(Floor),
}

/// Araba verilen kata ulaşmış durumda.
fn car_arrived(floor: i32) -> Event {
    Event::CarArrived(floor)
}

/// Araba kapıları açılmış durumda.
fn car_door_opened() -> Event {
    Event::CarDoorOpened
}

/// Araba kapıları kapanmış durumda.
fn car_door_closed() -> Event {
    Event::CarDoorClosed
}

/// Verilen kattaki asansör lobisinde yön düğmesine basıldı.
fn lobby_call_button_pressed(floor: i32, dir: Direction) -> Event {
    Event::ButtonPressed(Button::LobbyCall(dir, floor))
}

/// Asansör kabininde bir kat düğmesine basıldı.
fn car_floor_button_pressed(floor: i32) -> Event {
    Event::ButtonPressed(Button::CarFloor(floor))
}

fn main() {
    println!(
        "Zemin kattaki bir yolcu yukarı düğmesine basmış durumda: {:?}",
        lobby_call_button_pressed(0, Direction::Up)
    );
    println!("Araba zemin kata ulaşmış durumda: {:?}", car_arrived(0));
    println!("Araba kapısı açıldı: {:?}", car_door_opened());
    println!(
        "Bir yolcu 3. katın düğmesine basmış durumda: {:?}",
        car_floor_button_pressed(3)
    );
    println!("Araba kapısı kapandı: {:?}", car_door_closed());
    println!("Araba 3. kata ulaşmış durumda: {:?}", car_arrived(3));
}

Welcome to Day 2

Now that we have seen a fair amount of Rust, today will focus on Rust's type system:

• Desen eşleştirme: yapılardan veri çıkarma.
• Methods: associating functions with types.
• Traits: behaviors shared by multiple types.
• Generics: parameterizing types on other types.
• Standard library types and traits: a tour of Rust's rich standard library.

Zamanlama (Schedule)

Bu oturum 10 dakikalık aralar dahil yaklaşık 2 saat 10 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Desen Eşleştirme

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 1 saat sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Değerleri Eşleştirmek

The match keyword lets you match a value against one or more patterns. The comparisons are done from top to bottom and the first match wins.

The patterns can be simple values, similarly to switch in C and C++:

#[rustfmt::skip]
fn main() {
    let input = 'x';
    match input {
        'q'                       => println!("Quitting"),
        'a' | 's' | 'w' | 'd'     => println!("Moving around"),
        '0'..='9'                 => println!("Number input"),
        key if key.is_lowercase() => println!("Lowercase: {key}"),
        _                         => println!("Something else"),
    }
}

The _ pattern is a wildcard pattern which matches any value. The expressions must be exhaustive, meaning that it covers every possibility, so _ is often used as the final catch-all case.

Match can be used as an expression. Just like if, each match arm must have the same type. The type is the last expression of the block, if any. In the example above, the type is ().

A variable in the pattern (key in this example) will create a binding that can be used within the match arm.

A match guard causes the arm to match only if the condition is true.

Yapılar (Structs)

Like tuples, Struct can also be destructured by matching:

struct Foo {
    x: (u32, u32),
    y: u32,
}

#[rustfmt::skip]
fn main() {
    let foo = Foo { x: (1, 2), y: 3 };
    match foo {
        Foo { x: (1, b), y } => println!("x.0 = 1, b = {b}, y = {y}"),
        Foo { y: 2, x: i }   => println!("y = 2, x = {i:?}"),
        Foo { y, .. }        => println!("y = {y}, other fields were ignored"),
    }
}

Enumlar

Like tuples, enums can also be destructured by matching:

Patterns can also be used to bind variables to parts of your values. This is how you inspect the structure of your types. Let us start with a simple enum type:

enum Result {
    Ok(i32),
    Err(String),
}

fn divide_in_two(n: i32) -> Result {
    if n % 2 == 0 {
        Result::Ok(n / 2)
    } else {
        Result::Err(format!("cannot divide {n} into two equal parts"))
    }
}

fn main() {
    let n = 100;
    match divide_in_two(n) {
        Result::Ok(half) => println!("{n} divided in two is {half}"),
        Result::Err(msg) => println!("sorry, an error happened: {msg}"),
    }
}

Here we have used the arms to destructure the Result value. In the first arm, half is bound to the value inside the Ok variant. In the second arm, msg is bound to the error message.

Let'li Kontrol Akışı

Rust has a few control flow constructs which differ from other languages. They are used for pattern matching:

• if let ifadeleri
• let else ifadeleri
• while let ifadeleri

if let ifadeleri

The if let expression lets you execute different code depending on whether a value matches a pattern:

use std::time::Duration;

fn sleep_for(secs: f32) {
    if let Ok(duration) = Duration::try_from_secs_f32(secs) {
        std::thread::sleep(duration);
        println!("slept for {duration:?}");
    }
}

fn main() {
    sleep_for(-10.0);
    sleep_for(0.8);
}

let else ifadeleri

For the common case of matching a pattern and returning from the function, use let else. The "else" case must diverge (return, break, or panic - anything but falling off the end of the block).

fn hex_or_die_trying(maybe_string: Option<String>) -> Result<u32, String> {
    if let Some(s) = maybe_string {
        if let Some(first_byte_char) = s.chars().next() {
            if let Some(digit) = first_byte_char.to_digit(16) {
                Ok(digit)
            } else {
                return Err(String::from("not a hex digit"));
            }
        } else {
            return Err(String::from("got empty string"));
        }
    } else {
        return Err(String::from("got None"));
    }
}

fn main() {
    println!("result: {:?}", hex_or_die_trying(Some(String::from("foo"))));
}

Like with if let, there is a while let variant which repeatedly tests a value against a pattern:

fn main() {
    let mut name = String::from("Comprehensive Rust 🦀");
    while let Some(c) = name.pop() {
        println!("character: {c}");
    }
    // (There are more efficient ways to reverse a string!)
}

Here String::pop returns Some(c) until the string is empty, after which it will return None. The while let lets us keep iterating through all items.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn hex_or_die_trying(maybe_string: Option<String>) -> Result<u32, String> {
    let Some(s) = maybe_string else {
        return Err(String::from("got None"));
    };

    let Some(first_byte_char) = s.chars().next() else {
        return Err(String::from("got empty string"));
    };

    let Some(digit) = first_byte_char.to_digit(16) else {
        return Err(String::from("not a hex digit"));
    };

    return Ok(digit);
}
}

Alıştırma: İfade Değerlendirmesi

Let's write a simple recursive evaluator for arithmetic expressions.

An example of a small arithmetic expression could be 10 + 20, which evaluates to 30. We can represent the expression as a tree:

A bigger and more complex expression would be (10 * 9) + ((3 - 4) * 5), which evaluate to 85. We represent this as a much bigger tree:

In code, we will represent the tree with two types:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
/// An operation to perform on two subexpressions.
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Operation {
    Add,
    Sub,
    Mul,
    Div,
}

/// An expression, in tree form.
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Expression {
    /// An operation on two subexpressions.
    Op { op: Operation, left: Box<Expression>, right: Box<Expression> },

    /// A literal value
    Value(i64),
}
}

The Box type here is a smart pointer, and will be covered in detail later in the course. An expression can be "boxed" with Box::new as seen in the tests. To evaluate a boxed expression, use the deref operator (*) to "unbox" it: eval(*boxed_expr).

Some expressions cannot be evaluated and will return an error. The standard Result<Value, String> type is an enum that represents either a successful value (Ok(Value)) or an error (Err(String)). We will cover this type in detail later.

Copy and paste the code into the Rust playground, and begin implementing eval. The final product should pass the tests. It may be helpful to use todo!() and get the tests to pass one-by-one. You can also skip a test temporarily with #[ignore]:

#[test]
#[ignore]
fn test_value() { .. }

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
/// An operation to perform on two subexpressions.
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Operation {
    Add,
    Sub,
    Mul,
    Div,
}

/// An expression, in tree form.
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Expression {
    /// An operation on two subexpressions.
    Op { op: Operation, left: Box<Expression>, right: Box<Expression> },

    /// A literal value
    Value(i64),
}

fn eval(e: Expression) -> Result<i64, String> {
    todo!()
}

#[test]
fn test_value() {
    assert_eq!(eval(Expression::Value(19)), Ok(19));
}

#[test]
fn test_sum() {
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Add,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(10)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(20)),
        }),
        Ok(30)
    );
}

#[test]
fn test_recursion() {
    let term1 = Expression::Op {
        op: Operation::Mul,
        left: Box::new(Expression::Value(10)),
        right: Box::new(Expression::Value(9)),
    };
    let term2 = Expression::Op {
        op: Operation::Mul,
        left: Box::new(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Sub,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(3)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(4)),
        }),
        right: Box::new(Expression::Value(5)),
    };
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Add,
            left: Box::new(term1),
            right: Box::new(term2),
        }),
        Ok(85)
    );
}

#[test]
fn test_zeros() {
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Add,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(0)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(0))
        }),
        Ok(0)
    );
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Mul,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(0)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(0))
        }),
        Ok(0)
    );
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Sub,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(0)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(0))
        }),
        Ok(0)
    );
}

#[test]
fn test_error() {
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Div,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(99)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(0)),
        }),
        Err(String::from("division by zero"))
    );
}
}

Çözüm

/// An operation to perform on two subexpressions.
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Operation {
    Add,
    Sub,
    Mul,
    Div,
}

/// An expression, in tree form.
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Expression {
    /// An operation on two subexpressions.
    Op { op: Operation, left: Box<Expression>, right: Box<Expression> },

    /// A literal value
    Value(i64),
}

fn eval(e: Expression) -> Result<i64, String> {
    match e {
        Expression::Op { op, left, right } => {
            let left = match eval(*left) {
                Ok(v) => v,
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            };
            let right = match eval(*right) {
                Ok(v) => v,
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            };
            Ok(match op {
                Operation::Add => left + right,
                Operation::Sub => left - right,
                Operation::Mul => left * right,
                Operation::Div => {
                    if right == 0 {
                        return Err(String::from("division by zero"));
                    } else {
                        left / right
                    }
                }
            })
        }
        Expression::Value(v) => Ok(v),
    }
}

#[test]
fn test_value() {
    assert_eq!(eval(Expression::Value(19)), Ok(19));
}

#[test]
fn test_sum() {
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Add,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(10)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(20)),
        }),
        Ok(30)
    );
}

#[test]
fn test_recursion() {
    let term1 = Expression::Op {
        op: Operation::Mul,
        left: Box::new(Expression::Value(10)),
        right: Box::new(Expression::Value(9)),
    };
    let term2 = Expression::Op {
        op: Operation::Mul,
        left: Box::new(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Sub,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(3)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(4)),
        }),
        right: Box::new(Expression::Value(5)),
    };
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Add,
            left: Box::new(term1),
            right: Box::new(term2),
        }),
        Ok(85)
    );
}

#[test]
fn test_zeros() {
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Add,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(0)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(0))
        }),
        Ok(0)
    );
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Mul,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(0)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(0))
        }),
        Ok(0)
    );
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Sub,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(0)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(0))
        }),
        Ok(0)
    );
}

#[test]
fn test_error() {
    assert_eq!(
        eval(Expression::Op {
            op: Operation::Div,
            left: Box::new(Expression::Value(99)),
            right: Box::new(Expression::Value(0)),
        }),
        Err(String::from("division by zero"))
    );
}

fn main() {
    let expr = Expression::Op {
        op: Operation::Sub,
        left: Box::new(Expression::Value(20)),
        right: Box::new(Expression::Value(10)),
    };
    println!("expr: {expr:?}");
    println!("result: {:?}", eval(expr));
}

Metotlar ve Özellikler (Traits)

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 50 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Metotlar

Rust allows you to associate functions with your new types. You do this with an impl block:

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Race {
    name: String,
    laps: Vec<i32>,
}

impl Race {
    // No receiver, a static method
    fn new(name: &str) -> Self {
        Self { name: String::from(name), laps: Vec::new() }
    }

    // Exclusive borrowed read-write access to self
    fn add_lap(&mut self, lap: i32) {
        self.laps.push(lap);
    }

    // Shared and read-only borrowed access to self
    fn print_laps(&self) {
        println!("Recorded {} laps for {}:", self.laps.len(), self.name);
        for (idx, lap) in self.laps.iter().enumerate() {
            println!("Lap {idx}: {lap} sec");
        }
    }

    // Exclusive ownership of self (covered later)
    fn finish(self) {
        let total: i32 = self.laps.iter().sum();
        println!("Race {} is finished, total lap time: {}", self.name, total);
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut race = Race::new("Monaco Grand Prix");
    race.add_lap(70);
    race.add_lap(68);
    race.print_laps();
    race.add_lap(71);
    race.print_laps();
    race.finish();
    // race.add_lap(42);
}

The self arguments specify the "receiver" - the object the method acts on. There are several common receivers for a method:

• &self: borrows the object from the caller using a shared and immutable reference. The object can be used again afterwards.
• &mut self: borrows the object from the caller using a unique and mutable reference. The object can be used again afterwards.
• self: takes ownership of the object and moves it away from the caller. The method becomes the owner of the object. The object will be dropped (deallocated) when the method returns, unless its ownership is explicitly transmitted. Complete ownership does not automatically mean mutability.
• mut self: same as above, but the method can mutate the object.
• No receiver: this becomes a static method on the struct. Typically used to create constructors which are called new by convention.

Özellikler (Traits)

Rust lets you abstract over types with traits. They're similar to interfaces:

trait Pet {
    /// Return a sentence from this pet.
    fn talk(&self) -> String;

    /// Print a string to the terminal greeting this pet.
    fn greet(&self);
}

Özelliklerin (Traits) Gerçekleştirimi

trait Pet {
    fn talk(&self) -> String;

    fn greet(&self) {
        println!("Oh you're a cutie! What's your name? {}", self.talk());
    }
}

struct Dog {
    name: String,
    age: i8,
}

impl Pet for Dog {
    fn talk(&self) -> String {
        format!("Woof, my name is {}!", self.name)
    }
}

fn main() {
    let fido = Dog { name: String::from("Fido"), age: 5 };
    fido.greet();
}

Üstözellikler (Supertraits)

A trait can require that types implementing it also implement other traits, called supertraits. Here, any type implementing Pet must implement Animal.

trait Animal {
    fn leg_count(&self) -> u32;
}

trait Pet: Animal {
    fn name(&self) -> String;
}

struct Dog(String);

impl Animal for Dog {
    fn leg_count(&self) -> u32 {
        4
    }
}

impl Pet for Dog {
    fn name(&self) -> String {
        self.0.clone()
    }
}

fn main() {
    let puppy = Dog(String::from("Rex"));
    println!("{} has {} legs", puppy.name(), puppy.leg_count());
}

İlişkili Türler

Associated types are placeholder types which are supplied by the trait implementation.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Meters(i32);
#[derive(Debug)]
struct MetersSquared(i32);

trait Multiply {
    type Output;
    fn multiply(&self, other: &Self) -> Self::Output;
}

impl Multiply for Meters {
    type Output = MetersSquared;
    fn multiply(&self, other: &Self) -> Self::Output {
        MetersSquared(self.0 * other.0)
    }
}

fn main() {
    println!("{:?}", Meters(10).multiply(&Meters(20)));
}

Türetme

Supported traits can be automatically implemented for your custom types, as follows:

#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
struct Player {
    name: String,
    strength: u8,
    hit_points: u8,
}

fn main() {
    let p1 = Player::default(); // Default trait adds `default` constructor.
    let mut p2 = p1.clone(); // Clone trait adds `clone` method.
    p2.name = String::from("EldurScrollz");
    // Debug trait adds support for printing with `{:?}`.
    println!("{p1:?} vs. {p2:?}");
}

Alıştırma: Kaydedici Özellik

Let's design a simple logging utility, using a trait Logger with a log method. Code which might log its progress can then take an &impl Logger. In testing, this might put messages in the test logfile, while in a production build it would send messages to a log server.

However, the StdoutLogger given below logs all messages, regardless of verbosity. Your task is to write a VerbosityFilter type that will ignore messages above a maximum verbosity.

This is a common pattern: a struct wrapping a trait implementation and implementing that same trait, adding behavior in the process. What other kinds of wrappers might be useful in a logging utility?

pub trait Logger {
    /// Log a message at the given verbosity level.
    fn log(&self, verbosity: u8, message: &str);
}

struct StdoutLogger;

impl Logger for StdoutLogger {
    fn log(&self, verbosity: u8, message: &str) {
        println!("verbosity={verbosity}: {message}");
    }
}

// TODO: Define and implement `VerbosityFilter`.

fn main() {
    let logger = VerbosityFilter { max_verbosity: 3, inner: StdoutLogger };
    logger.log(5, "FYI");
    logger.log(2, "Uhoh");
}

Çözüm

pub trait Logger {
    /// Log a message at the given verbosity level.
    fn log(&self, verbosity: u8, message: &str);
}

struct StdoutLogger;

impl Logger for StdoutLogger {
    fn log(&self, verbosity: u8, message: &str) {
        println!("verbosity={verbosity}: {message}");
    }
}

/// Only log messages up to the given verbosity level.
struct VerbosityFilter {
    max_verbosity: u8,
    inner: StdoutLogger,
}

impl Logger for VerbosityFilter {
    fn log(&self, verbosity: u8, message: &str) {
        if verbosity <= self.max_verbosity {
            self.inner.log(verbosity, message);
        }
    }
}

fn main() {
    let logger = VerbosityFilter { max_verbosity: 3, inner: StdoutLogger };
    logger.log(5, "FYI");
    logger.log(2, "Uhoh");
}

Tekrar Hoş Geldiniz

Bu oturum 10 dakikalık aralar dahil yaklaşık 2 saat 15 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Jenerikler

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 45 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Jenerik Fonksiyonlar

Rust supports generics, which lets you abstract algorithms or data structures (such as sorting or a binary tree) over the types used or stored.

/// Pick `even` or `odd` depending on the value of `n`.
fn pick<T>(n: i32, even: T, odd: T) -> T {
    if n % 2 == 0 {
        even
    } else {
        odd
    }
}

fn main() {
    println!("picked a number: {:?}", pick(97, 222, 333));
    println!("picked a string: {:?}", pick(28, "dog", "cat"));
}

Jenerik Veri Türleri

You can use generics to abstract over the concrete field type:

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Point<T> {
    x: T,
    y: T,
}

impl<T> Point<T> {
    fn coords(&self) -> (&T, &T) {
        (&self.x, &self.y)
    }

    fn set_x(&mut self, x: T) {
        self.x = x;
    }
}

fn main() {
    let integer = Point { x: 5, y: 10 };
    let float = Point { x: 1.0, y: 4.0 };
    println!("{integer:?} and {float:?}");
    println!("coords: {:?}", integer.coords());
}

Jenerik Özellikler (Traits)

Traits can also be generic, just like types and functions. A trait's parameters get concrete types when it is used.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Foo(String);

impl From<u32> for Foo {
    fn from(from: u32) -> Foo {
        Foo(format!("Converted from integer: {from}"))
    }
}

impl From<bool> for Foo {
    fn from(from: bool) -> Foo {
        Foo(format!("Converted from bool: {from}"))
    }
}

fn main() {
    let from_int = Foo::from(123);
    let from_bool = Foo::from(true);
    println!("{from_int:?}, {from_bool:?}");
}

Özellik (Trait) Sınırları

When working with generics, you often want to require the types to implement some trait, so that you can call this trait's methods.

You can do this with T: Trait:

fn duplicate<T: Clone>(a: T) -> (T, T) {
    (a.clone(), a.clone())
}

// struct NotCloneable;

fn main() {
    let foo = String::from("foo");
    let pair = duplicate(foo);
    println!("{pair:?}");
}

impl Trait

Similar to trait bounds, an impl Trait syntax can be used in function arguments and return values:

// Syntactic sugar for:
//   fn add_42_millions<T: Into<i32>>(x: T) -> i32 {
fn add_42_millions(x: impl Into<i32>) -> i32 {
    x.into() + 42_000_000
}

fn pair_of(x: u32) -> impl std::fmt::Debug {
    (x + 1, x - 1)
}

fn main() {
    let many = add_42_millions(42_i8);
    println!("{many}");
    let many_more = add_42_millions(10_000_000);
    println!("{many_more}");
    let debuggable = pair_of(27);
    println!("debuggable: {debuggable:?}");
}

dyn Trait

In addition to using traits for static dispatch via generics, Rust also supports using them for type-erased, dynamic dispatch via trait objects:

struct Dog {
    name: String,
    age: i8,
}
struct Cat {
    lives: i8,
}

trait Pet {
    fn talk(&self) -> String;
}

impl Pet for Dog {
    fn talk(&self) -> String {
        format!("Woof, my name is {}!", self.name)
    }
}

impl Pet for Cat {
    fn talk(&self) -> String {
        String::from("Miau!")
    }
}

// Uses generics and static dispatch.
fn generic(pet: &impl Pet) {
    println!("Merhaba, nasılsın? {}", pet.talk());
}

// Uses type-erasure and dynamic dispatch.
fn dynamic(pet: &dyn Pet) {
    println!("Merhaba, nasılsın? {}", pet.talk());
}

fn main() {
    let cat = Cat { lives: 9 };
    let dog = Dog { name: String::from("Fido"), age: 5 };

    generic(&cat);
    generic(&dog);

    dynamic(&cat);
    dynamic(&dog);
}

Alıştırma: Jenerik min

In this short exercise, you will implement a generic min function that determines the minimum of two values, using the Ord trait.

use std::cmp::Ordering;

// TODO: implement the `min` function used in `main`.

fn main() {
    assert_eq!(min(0, 10), 0);
    assert_eq!(min(500, 123), 123);

    assert_eq!(min('a', 'z'), 'a');
    assert_eq!(min('7', '1'), '1');

    assert_eq!(min("merhaba", "goodbye"), "goodbye");
    assert_eq!(min("bat", "armadillo"), "armadillo");
}

Çözüm

use std::cmp::Ordering;

fn min<T: Ord>(l: T, r: T) -> T {
    match l.cmp(&r) {
        Ordering::Less | Ordering::Equal => l,
        Ordering::Greater => r,
    }
}

fn main() {
    assert_eq!(min(0, 10), 0);
    assert_eq!(min(500, 123), 123);

    assert_eq!(min('a', 'z'), 'a');
    assert_eq!(min('7', '1'), '1');

    assert_eq!(min("merhaba", "goodbye"), "goodbye");
    assert_eq!(min("bat", "armadillo"), "armadillo");
}

Standart Kütüphane Türleri

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 1 saat sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Standart Kütüphane

Rust comes with a standard library which helps establish a set of common types used by Rust libraries and programs. This way, two libraries can work together smoothly because they both use the same String type.

In fact, Rust contains several layers of the Standard Library: core, alloc and std.

• core includes the most basic types and functions that don't depend on libc, allocator or even the presence of an operating system.
• alloc includes types which require a global heap allocator, such as Vec, Box and Arc.
• Embedded Rust applications often only use core, and sometimes alloc.

Dokümantasyon

Rust comes with extensive documentation. For example:

• All of the details about loops.
• Primitive types like u8.
• Standard library types like Option or BinaryHeap.

Use rustup doc --std or https://std.rs to view the documentation.

In fact, you can document your own code:

/// Determine whether the first argument is divisible by the second argument.
///
/// If the second argument is zero, the result is false.
fn is_divisible_by(lhs: u32, rhs: u32) -> bool {
    if rhs == 0 {
        return false;
    }
    lhs % rhs == 0
}

The contents are treated as Markdown. All published Rust library crates are automatically documented at docs.rs using the rustdoc tool. It is idiomatic to document all public items in an API using this pattern.

To document an item from inside the item (such as inside a module), use //! or /*! .. */, called "inner doc comments":

//! This module contains functionality relating to divisibility of integers.

Option

We have already seen some use of Option<T>. It stores either a value of type T or nothing. For example, String::find returns an Option<usize>.

fn main() {
    let name = "Löwe 老虎 Léopard Gepardi";
    let mut position: Option<usize> = name.find('é');
    println!("find returned {position:?}");
    assert_eq!(position.unwrap(), 14);
    position = name.find('Z');
    println!("find returned {position:?}");
    assert_eq!(position.expect("Character not found"), 0);
}

Result

Result is similar to Option, but indicates the success or failure of an operation, each with a different enum variant. It is generic: Result<T, E> where T is used in the Ok variant and E appears in the Err variant.

use std::fs::File;
use std::io::Read;

fn main() {
    let file: Result<File, std::io::Error> = File::open("diary.txt");
    match file {
        Ok(mut file) => {
            let mut contents = String::new();
            if let Ok(bytes) = file.read_to_string(&mut contents) {
                println!("Dear diary: {contents} ({bytes} bytes)");
            } else {
                println!("Could not read file content");
            }
        }
        Err(err) => {
            println!("The diary could not be opened: {err}");
        }
    }
}

String

String is a growable UTF-8 encoded string:

fn main() {
    let mut s1 = String::new();
    s1.push_str("Merhaba");
    println!("s1: len = {}, capacity = {}", s1.len(), s1.capacity());

    let mut s2 = String::with_capacity(s1.len() + 1);
    s2.push_str(&s1);
    s2.push('!');
    println!("s2: len = {}, capacity = {}", s2.len(), s2.capacity());

    let s3 = String::from("🇨🇭");
    println!("s3: len = {}, number of chars = {}", s3.len(), s3.chars().count());
}

String implements Deref<Target = str>, which means that you can call all str methods on a String.

Vec

Vec is the standard resizable heap-allocated buffer:

fn main() {
    let mut v1 = Vec::new();
    v1.push(42);
    println!("v1: len = {}, capacity = {}", v1.len(), v1.capacity());

    let mut v2 = Vec::with_capacity(v1.len() + 1);
    v2.extend(v1.iter());
    v2.push(9999);
    println!("v2: len = {}, capacity = {}", v2.len(), v2.capacity());

    // Canonical macro to initialize a vector with elements.
    let mut v3 = vec![0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4];

    // Retain only the even elements.
    v3.retain(|x| x % 2 == 0);
    println!("{v3:?}");

    // Remove consecutive duplicates.
    v3.dedup();
    println!("{v3:?}");
}

Vec implements Deref<Target = [T]>, which means that you can call slice methods on a Vec.

HashMap

Standard hash map with protection against HashDoS attacks:

use std::collections::HashMap;

fn main() {
    let mut page_counts = HashMap::new();
    page_counts.insert("Adventures of Huckleberry Finn", 207);
    page_counts.insert("Grimms' Fairy Tales", 751);
    page_counts.insert("Pride and Prejudice", 303);

    if !page_counts.contains_key("Les Misérables") {
        println!(
            "We know about {} books, but not Les Misérables.",
            page_counts.len()
        );
    }

    for book in ["Pride and Prejudice", "Alice's Adventure in Wonderland"] {
        match page_counts.get(book) {
            Some(count) => println!("{book}: {count} pages"),
            None => println!("{book} is unknown."),
        }
    }

    // Use the .entry() method to insert a value if nothing is found.
    for book in ["Pride and Prejudice", "Alice's Adventure in Wonderland"] {
        let page_count: &mut i32 = page_counts.entry(book).or_insert(0);
        *page_count += 1;
    }

    println!("{page_counts:#?}");
}

Alıştırma: Sayıcı

In this exercise you will take a very simple data structure and make it generic. It uses a std::collections::HashMap to keep track of which values have been seen and how many times each one has appeared.

The initial version of Counter is hard coded to only work for u32 values. Make the struct and its methods generic over the type of value being tracked, that way Counter can track any type of value.

If you finish early, try using the entry method to halve the number of hash lookups required to implement the count method.

use std::collections::HashMap;

/// Counter counts the number of times each value of type T has been seen.
struct Counter {
    values: HashMap<u32, u64>,
}

impl Counter {
    /// Create a new Counter.
    fn new() -> Self {
        Counter {
            values: HashMap::new(),
        }
    }

    /// Count an occurrence of the given value.
    fn count(&mut self, value: u32) {
        if self.values.contains_key(&value) {
            *self.values.get_mut(&value).unwrap() += 1;
        } else {
            self.values.insert(value, 1);
        }
    }

    /// Return the number of times the given value has been seen.
    fn times_seen(&self, value: u32) -> u64 {
        self.values.get(&value).copied().unwrap_or_default()
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut ctr = Counter::new();
    ctr.count(13);
    ctr.count(14);
    ctr.count(16);
    ctr.count(14);
    ctr.count(14);
    ctr.count(11);

    for i in 10..20 {
        println!("saw {} values equal to {}", ctr.times_seen(i), i);
    }

    let mut strctr = Counter::new();
    strctr.count("apple");
    strctr.count("orange");
    strctr.count("apple");
    println!("got {} apples", strctr.times_seen("apple"));
}

Çözüm

use std::collections::HashMap;
use std::hash::Hash;

/// Counter counts the number of times each value of type T has been seen.
struct Counter<T> {
    values: HashMap<T, u64>,
}

impl<T: Eq + Hash> Counter<T> {
    /// Create a new Counter.
    fn new() -> Self {
        Counter { values: HashMap::new() }
    }

    /// Count an occurrence of the given value.
    fn count(&mut self, value: T) {
        *self.values.entry(value).or_default() += 1;
    }

    /// Return the number of times the given value has been seen.
    fn times_seen(&self, value: T) -> u64 {
        self.values.get(&value).copied().unwrap_or_default()
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut ctr = Counter::new();
    ctr.count(13);
    ctr.count(14);
    ctr.count(16);
    ctr.count(14);
    ctr.count(14);
    ctr.count(11);

    for i in 10..20 {
        println!("saw {} values equal to {}", ctr.times_seen(i), i);
    }

    let mut strctr = Counter::new();
    strctr.count("apple");
    strctr.count("orange");
    strctr.count("apple");
    println!("got {} apples", strctr.times_seen("apple"));
}

Standart Kütüphanedeki Özellikler (Traits)

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 1 saat 10 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Karşılaştırmalar

These traits support comparisons between values. All traits can be derived for types containing fields that implement these traits.

PartialEq and Eq

PartialEq is a partial equivalence relation, with required method eq and provided method ne. The == and != operators will call these methods.

struct Key {
    id: u32,
    metadata: Option<String>,
}
impl PartialEq for Key {
    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
        self.id == other.id
    }
}

Eq is a full equivalence relation (reflexive, symmetric, and transitive) and implies PartialEq. Functions that require full equivalence will use Eq as a trait bound.

PartialOrd and Ord

PartialOrd defines a partial ordering, with a partial_cmp method. It is used to implement the <, <=, >=, and > operators.

use std::cmp::Ordering;
#[derive(Eq, PartialEq)]
struct Citation {
    author: String,
    year: u32,
}
impl PartialOrd for Citation {
    fn partial_cmp(&self, other: &Self) -> Option<Ordering> {
        match self.author.partial_cmp(&other.author) {
            Some(Ordering::Equal) => self.year.partial_cmp(&other.year),
            author_ord => author_ord,
        }
    }
}

Ord is a total ordering, with cmp returning Ordering.

struct Key {
    id: u32,
    metadata: Option<String>,
}
impl PartialEq<u32> for Key {
    fn eq(&self, other: &u32) -> bool {
        self.id == *other
    }
}

Operatörler

Operator overloading is implemented via traits in std::ops:

#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
struct Point {
    x: i32,
    y: i32,
}

impl std::ops::Add for Point {
    type Output = Self;

    fn add(self, other: Self) -> Self {
        Self { x: self.x + other.x, y: self.y + other.y }
    }
}

fn main() {
    let p1 = Point { x: 10, y: 20 };
    let p2 = Point { x: 100, y: 200 };
    println!("{p1:?} + {p2:?} = {:?}", p1 + p2);
}

From ve Into

Types implement From and Into to facilitate type conversions. Unlike as, these traits correspond to lossless, infallible conversions.

fn main() {
    let s = String::from("merhaba");
    let addr = std::net::Ipv4Addr::from([127, 0, 0, 1]);
    let one = i16::from(true);
    let bigger = i32::from(123_i16);
    println!("{s}, {addr}, {one}, {bigger}");
}

Into is automatically implemented when From is implemented:

fn main() {
    let s: String = "merhaba".into();
    let addr: std::net::Ipv4Addr = [127, 0, 0, 1].into();
    let one: i16 = true.into();
    let bigger: i32 = 123_i16.into();
    println!("{s}, {addr}, {one}, {bigger}");
}

Tür Çevirimi

Rust has no implicit type conversions, but does support explicit casts with as. These generally follow C semantics where those are defined.

fn main() {
    let value: i64 = 1000;
    println!("as u16: {}", value as u16);
    println!("as i16: {}", value as i16);
    println!("as u8: {}", value as u8);
}

The results of as are always defined in Rust and consistent across platforms. This might not match your intuition for changing sign or casting to a smaller type -- check the docs, and comment for clarity.

Casting with as is a relatively sharp tool that is easy to use incorrectly, and can be a source of subtle bugs as future maintenance work changes the types that are used or the ranges of values in types. Casts are best used only when the intent is to indicate unconditional truncation (e.g. selecting the bottom 32 bits of a u64 with as u32, regardless of what was in the high bits).

For infallible casts (e.g. u32 to u64), prefer using From or Into over as to confirm that the cast is in fact infallible. For fallible casts, TryFrom and TryInto are available when you want to handle casts that fit differently from those that don't.

Read ve Write

Using Read and BufRead, you can abstract over u8 sources:

use std::io::{BufRead, BufReader, Read, Result};

fn count_lines<R: Read>(reader: R) -> usize {
    let buf_reader = BufReader::new(reader);
    buf_reader.lines().count()
}

fn main() -> Result<()> {
    let slice: &[u8] = b"foo\nbar\nbaz\n";
    println!("lines in slice: {}", count_lines(slice));

    let file = std::fs::File::open(std::env::current_exe()?)?;
    println!("lines in file: {}", count_lines(file));
    Ok(())
}

Similarly, Write lets you abstract over u8 sinks:

use std::io::{Result, Write};

fn log<W: Write>(writer: &mut W, msg: &str) -> Result<()> {
    writer.write_all(msg.as_bytes())?;
    writer.write_all("\n".as_bytes())
}

fn main() -> Result<()> {
    let mut buffer = Vec::new();
    log(&mut buffer, "Merhaba")?;
    log(&mut buffer, "Dünya")?;
    println!("Logged: {buffer:?}");
    Ok(())
}

The Default Trait

Default trait produces a default value for a type.

#[derive(Debug, Default)]
struct Derived {
    x: u32,
    y: String,
    z: Implemented,
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Implemented(String);

impl Default for Implemented {
    fn default() -> Self {
        Self("John Smith".into())
    }
}

fn main() {
    let default_struct = Derived::default();
    println!("{default_struct:#?}");

    let almost_default_struct =
        Derived { y: "Y is set!".into(), ..Derived::default() };
    println!("{almost_default_struct:#?}");

    let nothing: Option<Derived> = None;
    println!("{:#?}", nothing.unwrap_or_default());
}

Çevreleyiciler (Closures)

Closures or lambda expressions have types which cannot be named. However, they implement special Fn, FnMut, and FnOnce traits:

fn apply_and_log(func: impl FnOnce(i32) -> i32, func_name: &str, input: i32) {
    println!("Calling {func_name}({input}): {}", func(input))
}

fn main() {
    let n = 3;
    let add_3 = |x| x + n;
    apply_and_log(&add_3, "add_3", 10);
    apply_and_log(&add_3, "add_3", 20);

    let mut v = Vec::new();
    let mut accumulate = |x: i32| {
        v.push(x);
        v.iter().sum::<i32>()
    };
    apply_and_log(&mut accumulate, "accumulate", 4);
    apply_and_log(&mut accumulate, "accumulate", 5);

    let multiply_sum = |x| x * v.into_iter().sum::<i32>();
    apply_and_log(multiply_sum, "multiply_sum", 3);
}

fn make_greeter(prefix: String) -> impl Fn(&str) {
    return move |name| println!("{} {}", prefix, name);
}

fn main() {
    let hi = make_greeter("Hi".to_string());
    hi("Greg");
}

Alıştırma: ROT13

In this example, you will implement the classic "ROT13" cipher. Copy this code to the playground, and implement the missing bits. Only rotate ASCII alphabetic characters, to ensure the result is still valid UTF-8.

use std::io::Read;

struct RotDecoder<R: Read> {
    input: R,
    rot: u8,
}

// Implement the `Read` trait for `RotDecoder`.

fn main() {
    let mut rot =
        RotDecoder { input: "Gb trg gb gur bgure fvqr!".as_bytes(), rot: 13 };
    let mut result = String::new();
    rot.read_to_string(&mut result).unwrap();
    println!("{}", result);
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod test {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn joke() {
        let mut rot =
            RotDecoder { input: "Gb trg gb gur bgure fvqr!".as_bytes(), rot: 13 };
        let mut result = String::new();
        rot.read_to_string(&mut result).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(&result, "To get to the other side!");
    }

    #[test]
    fn binary() {
        let input: Vec<u8> = (0..=255u8).collect();
        let mut rot = RotDecoder::<&[u8]> { input: input.as_ref(), rot: 13 };
        let mut buf = [0u8; 256];
        assert_eq!(rot.read(&mut buf).unwrap(), 256);
        for i in 0..=255 {
            if input[i] != buf[i] {
                assert!(input[i].is_ascii_alphabetic());
                assert!(buf[i].is_ascii_alphabetic());
            }
        }
    }
}

What happens if you chain two RotDecoder instances together, each rotating by 13 characters?

Çözüm

use std::io::Read;

struct RotDecoder<R: Read> {
    input: R,
    rot: u8,
}

impl<R: Read> Read for RotDecoder<R> {
    fn read(&mut self, buf: &mut [u8]) -> std::io::Result<usize> {
        let size = self.input.read(buf)?;
        for b in &mut buf[..size] {
            if b.is_ascii_alphabetic() {
                let base = if b.is_ascii_uppercase() { 'A' } else { 'a' } as u8;
                *b = (*b - base + self.rot) % 26 + base;
            }
        }
        Ok(size)
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut rot =
        RotDecoder { input: "Gb trg gb gur bgure fvqr!".as_bytes(), rot: 13 };
    let mut result = String::new();
    rot.read_to_string(&mut result).unwrap();
    println!("{}", result);
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod test {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn joke() {
        let mut rot =
            RotDecoder { input: "Gb trg gb gur bgure fvqr!".as_bytes(), rot: 13 };
        let mut result = String::new();
        rot.read_to_string(&mut result).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(&result, "To get to the other side!");
    }

    #[test]
    fn binary() {
        let input: Vec<u8> = (0..=255u8).collect();
        let mut rot = RotDecoder::<&[u8]> { input: input.as_ref(), rot: 13 };
        let mut buf = [0u8; 256];
        assert_eq!(rot.read(&mut buf).unwrap(), 256);
        for i in 0..=255 {
            if input[i] != buf[i] {
                assert!(input[i].is_ascii_alphabetic());
                assert!(buf[i].is_ascii_alphabetic());
            }
        }
    }
}

Welcome to Day 3

Today, we will cover:

• Memory management, lifetimes, and the borrow checker: how Rust ensures memory safety.
• Smart pointers: standard library pointer types.

Zamanlama (Schedule)

Bu oturum 10 dakikalık aralar dahil yaklaşık 2 saat 20 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Bellek Yönetimi

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 1 saat sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Program Belleğinin Gözden Geçirilmesi

Programs allocate memory in two ways:

• Stack: Continuous area of memory for local variables.

  • Values have fixed sizes known at compile time.
  • Extremely fast: just move a stack pointer.
  • Easy to manage: follows function calls.
  • Great memory locality.

• Heap: Storage of values outside of function calls.

  • Values have dynamic sizes determined at runtime.
  • Slightly slower than the stack: some book-keeping needed.
  • No guarantee of memory locality.

Örnek

Creating a String puts fixed-sized metadata on the stack and dynamically sized data, the actual string, on the heap:

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("Merhaba");
}

fn main() {
    let mut s1 = String::from("Merhaba");
    s1.push(' ');
    s1.push_str("dünya");
    // DON'T DO THIS AT HOME! For educational purposes only.
    // String provides no guarantees about its layout, so this could lead to
    // undefined behavior.
    unsafe {
        let (capacity, ptr, len): (usize, usize, usize) = std::mem::transmute(s1);
        println!("capacity = {capacity}, ptr = {ptr:#x}, len = {len}");
    }
}

Bellek Yönetimine Yaklaşımlar

Traditionally, languages have fallen into two broad categories:

• Full control via manual memory management: C, C++, Pascal, ...
  • Programmer decides when to allocate or free heap memory.
  • Programmer must determine whether a pointer still points to valid memory.
  • Studies show, programmers make mistakes.
• Full safety via automatic memory management at runtime: Java, Python, Go, Haskell, ...
  • A runtime system ensures that memory is not freed until it can no longer be referenced.
  • Genellikle referans sayımı veya çöp toplama ile uygulanır.

Rust offers a new mix:

Full control and safety via compile time enforcement of correct memory management.

It does this with an explicit ownership concept.

Sahiplik

All variable bindings have a scope where they are valid and it is an error to use a variable outside its scope:

struct Point(i32, i32);

fn main() {
    {
        let p = Point(3, 4);
        println!("x: {}", p.0);
    }
    println!("y: {}", p.1);
}

We say that the variable owns the value. Every Rust value has precisely one owner at all times.

At the end of the scope, the variable is dropped and the data is freed. A destructor can run here to free up resources.

Taşıma Semantiği

An assignment will transfer ownership between variables:

fn main() {
    let s1: String = String::from("Merhaba!");
    let s2: String = s1;
    println!("s2: {s2}");
    // println!("s1: {s1}");
}

• The assignment of s1 to s2 transfers ownership.
• When s1 goes out of scope, nothing happens: it does not own anything.
• When s2 goes out of scope, the string data is freed.

Before move to s2:

After move to s2:

When you pass a value to a function, the value is assigned to the function parameter. This transfers ownership:

fn say_hello(name: String) {
    println!("Merhaba {name}")
}

fn main() {
    let name = String::from("Alice");
    say_hello(name);
    // say_hello(name);
}

std::string s1 = "Cpp";
std::string s2 = s1;  // Duplicate the data in s1.

Clone

Sometimes you want to make a copy of a value. The Clone trait accomplishes this.

fn say_hello(name: String) {
    println!("Merhaba {name}")
}

fn main() {
    let name = String::from("Alice");
    say_hello(name.clone());
    say_hello(name);
}

Kopyalanan Türler

While move semantics are the default, certain types are copied by default:

fn main() {
    let x = 42;
    let y = x;
    println!("x: {x}"); // would not be accessible if not Copy
    println!("y: {y}");
}

These types implement the Copy trait.

You can opt-in your own types to use copy semantics:

#[derive(Copy, Clone, Debug)]
struct Point(i32, i32);

fn main() {
    let p1 = Point(3, 4);
    let p2 = p1;
    println!("p1: {p1:?}");
    println!("p2: {p2:?}");
}

• After the assignment, both p1 and p2 own their own data.
• We can also use p1.clone() to explicitly copy the data.

The Drop Trait

Values which implement Drop can specify code to run when they go out of scope:

struct Droppable {
    name: &'static str,
}

impl Drop for Droppable {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        println!("Dropping {}", self.name);
    }
}

fn main() {
    let a = Droppable { name: "a" };
    {
        let b = Droppable { name: "b" };
        {
            let c = Droppable { name: "c" };
            let d = Droppable { name: "d" };
            println!("Exiting block B");
        }
        println!("Exiting block A");
    }
    drop(a);
    println!("Exiting main");
}

Alıştırma: İnşa Edici / Yapıcı Tür (Builder Type)

In this example, we will implement a complex data type that owns all of its data. We will use the "builder pattern" to support building a new value piece-by-piece, using convenience functions.

Fill in the missing pieces.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Language {
    Rust,
    Java,
    Perl,
}

#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
struct Dependency {
    name: String,
    version_expression: String,
}

/// A representation of a software package.
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Package {
    name: String,
    version: String,
    authors: Vec<String>,
    dependencies: Vec<Dependency>,
    language: Option<Language>,
}

impl Package {
    /// Return a representation of this package as a dependency, for use in
    /// building other packages.
    fn as_dependency(&self) -> Dependency {
        todo!("1")
    }
}

/// A builder for a Package. Use `build()` to create the `Package` itself.
struct PackageBuilder(Package);

impl PackageBuilder {
    fn new(name: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
        todo!("2")
    }

    /// Set the package version.
    fn version(mut self, version: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
        self.0.version = version.into();
        self
    }

    /// Set the package authors.
    fn authors(mut self, authors: Vec<String>) -> Self {
        todo!("3")
    }

    /// Add an additional dependency.
    fn dependency(mut self, dependency: Dependency) -> Self {
        todo!("4")
    }

    /// Set the language. If not set, language defaults to None.
    fn language(mut self, language: Language) -> Self {
        todo!("5")
    }

    fn build(self) -> Package {
        self.0
    }
}

fn main() {
    let base64 = PackageBuilder::new("base64").version("0.13").build();
    println!("base64: {base64:?}");
    let log =
        PackageBuilder::new("log").version("0.4").language(Language::Rust).build();
    println!("log: {log:?}");
    let serde = PackageBuilder::new("serde")
        .authors(vec!["djmitche".into()])
        .version(String::from("4.0"))
        .dependency(base64.as_dependency())
        .dependency(log.as_dependency())
        .build();
    println!("serde: {serde:?}");
}

Çözüm

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Language {
    Rust,
    Java,
    Perl,
}

#[derive(Clone, Debug)]
struct Dependency {
    name: String,
    version_expression: String,
}

/// A representation of a software package.
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Package {
    name: String,
    version: String,
    authors: Vec<String>,
    dependencies: Vec<Dependency>,
    language: Option<Language>,
}

impl Package {
    /// Return a representation of this package as a dependency, for use in
    /// building other packages.
    fn as_dependency(&self) -> Dependency {
        Dependency {
            name: self.name.clone(),
            version_expression: self.version.clone(),
        }
    }
}

/// A builder for a Package. Use `build()` to create the `Package` itself.
struct PackageBuilder(Package);

impl PackageBuilder {
    fn new(name: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
        Self(Package {
            name: name.into(),
            version: "0.1".into(),
            authors: vec![],
            dependencies: vec![],
            language: None,
        })
    }

    /// Set the package version.
    fn version(mut self, version: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
        self.0.version = version.into();
        self
    }

    /// Set the package authors.
    fn authors(mut self, authors: Vec<String>) -> Self {
        self.0.authors = authors;
        self
    }

    /// Add an additional dependency.
    fn dependency(mut self, dependency: Dependency) -> Self {
        self.0.dependencies.push(dependency);
        self
    }

    /// Set the language. If not set, language defaults to None.
    fn language(mut self, language: Language) -> Self {
        self.0.language = Some(language);
        self
    }

    fn build(self) -> Package {
        self.0
    }
}

fn main() {
    let base64 = PackageBuilder::new("base64").version("0.13").build();
    println!("base64: {base64:?}");
    let log =
        PackageBuilder::new("log").version("0.4").language(Language::Rust).build();
    println!("log: {log:?}");
    let serde = PackageBuilder::new("serde")
        .authors(vec!["djmitche".into()])
        .version(String::from("4.0"))
        .dependency(base64.as_dependency())
        .dependency(log.as_dependency())
        .build();
    println!("serde: {serde:?}");
}

Akıllı Göstericiler

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 55 dakika sürmelidir. İçerir:

Box<T>

Box is an owned pointer to data on the heap:

fn main() {
    let five = Box::new(5);
    println!("five: {}", *five);
}

Box<T> implements Deref<Target = T>, which means that you can call methods from T directly on a Box<T>.

Recursive data types or data types with dynamic sizes cannot be stored inline without a pointer indirection. Box accomplishes that indirection:

#[derive(Debug)]
enum List<T> {
    /// A non-empty list: first element and the rest of the list.
    Element(T, Box<List<T>>),
    /// An empty list.
    Nil,
}

fn main() {
    let list: List<i32> =
        List::Element(1, Box::new(List::Element(2, Box::new(List::Nil))));
    println!("{list:?}");
}

Rc

Rc is a reference-counted shared pointer. Use this when you need to refer to the same data from multiple places:

use std::rc::Rc;

fn main() {
    let a = Rc::new(10);
    let b = Rc::clone(&a);

    println!("a: {a}");
    println!("b: {b}");
}

• See Arc and Mutex if you are in a multi-threaded context.
• You can downgrade a shared pointer into a Weak pointer to create cycles that will get dropped.

Sahipli Özellik Nesneleri (Owned Trait Objects)

We previously saw how trait objects can be used with references, e.g &dyn Pet. However, we can also use trait objects with smart pointers like Box to create an owned trait object: Box<dyn Pet>.

struct Dog {
    name: String,
    age: i8,
}
struct Cat {
    lives: i8,
}

trait Pet {
    fn talk(&self) -> String;
}

impl Pet for Dog {
    fn talk(&self) -> String {
        format!("Woof, my name is {}!", self.name)
    }
}

impl Pet for Cat {
    fn talk(&self) -> String {
        String::from("Miau!")
    }
}

fn main() {
    let pets: Vec<Box<dyn Pet>> = vec![
        Box::new(Cat { lives: 9 }),
        Box::new(Dog { name: String::from("Fido"), age: 5 }),
    ];
    for pet in pets {
        println!("Merhaba, nasılsın? {}", pet.talk());
    }
}

Memory layout after allocating pets:

Alıştırma: İkili Ağaç

A binary tree is a tree-type data structure where every node has two children (left and right). We will create a tree where each node stores a value. For a given node N, all nodes in a N's left subtree contain smaller values, and all nodes in N's right subtree will contain larger values.

Implement the following types, so that the given tests pass.

Extra Credit: implement an iterator over a binary tree that returns the values in order.

/// A node in the binary tree.
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Node<T: Ord> {
    value: T,
    left: Subtree<T>,
    right: Subtree<T>,
}

/// A possibly-empty subtree.
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Subtree<T: Ord>(Option<Box<Node<T>>>);

/// A container storing a set of values, using a binary tree.
///
/// If the same value is added multiple times, it is only stored once.
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct BinaryTree<T: Ord> {
    root: Subtree<T>,
}

impl<T: Ord> BinaryTree<T> {
    fn new() -> Self {
        Self { root: Subtree::new() }
    }

    fn insert(&mut self, value: T) {
        self.root.insert(value);
    }

    fn has(&self, value: &T) -> bool {
        self.root.has(value)
    }

    fn len(&self) -> usize {
        self.root.len()
    }
}

// Implement `new`, `insert`, `len`, and `has` for `Subtree`.

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn len() {
        let mut tree = BinaryTree::new();
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 0);
        tree.insert(2);
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 1);
        tree.insert(1);
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 2);
        tree.insert(2); // not a unique item
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 2);
    }

    #[test]
    fn has() {
        let mut tree = BinaryTree::new();
        fn check_has(tree: &BinaryTree<i32>, exp: &[bool]) {
            let got: Vec<bool> =
                (0..exp.len()).map(|i| tree.has(&(i as i32))).collect();
            assert_eq!(&got, exp);
        }

        check_has(&tree, &[false, false, false, false, false]);
        tree.insert(0);
        check_has(&tree, &[true, false, false, false, false]);
        tree.insert(4);
        check_has(&tree, &[true, false, false, false, true]);
        tree.insert(4);
        check_has(&tree, &[true, false, false, false, true]);
        tree.insert(3);
        check_has(&tree, &[true, false, false, true, true]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn unbalanced() {
        let mut tree = BinaryTree::new();
        for i in 0..100 {
            tree.insert(i);
        }
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 100);
        assert!(tree.has(&50));
    }
}

Çözüm

use std::cmp::Ordering;

/// A node in the binary tree.
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Node<T: Ord> {
    value: T,
    left: Subtree<T>,
    right: Subtree<T>,
}

/// A possibly-empty subtree.
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Subtree<T: Ord>(Option<Box<Node<T>>>);

/// A container storing a set of values, using a binary tree.
///
/// If the same value is added multiple times, it is only stored once.
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct BinaryTree<T: Ord> {
    root: Subtree<T>,
}

impl<T: Ord> BinaryTree<T> {
    fn new() -> Self {
        Self { root: Subtree::new() }
    }

    fn insert(&mut self, value: T) {
        self.root.insert(value);
    }

    fn has(&self, value: &T) -> bool {
        self.root.has(value)
    }

    fn len(&self) -> usize {
        self.root.len()
    }
}

impl<T: Ord> Subtree<T> {
    fn new() -> Self {
        Self(None)
    }

    fn insert(&mut self, value: T) {
        match &mut self.0 {
            None => self.0 = Some(Box::new(Node::new(value))),
            Some(n) => match value.cmp(&n.value) {
                Ordering::Less => n.left.insert(value),
                Ordering::Equal => {}
                Ordering::Greater => n.right.insert(value),
            },
        }
    }

    fn has(&self, value: &T) -> bool {
        match &self.0 {
            None => false,
            Some(n) => match value.cmp(&n.value) {
                Ordering::Less => n.left.has(value),
                Ordering::Equal => true,
                Ordering::Greater => n.right.has(value),
            },
        }
    }

    fn len(&self) -> usize {
        match &self.0 {
            None => 0,
            Some(n) => 1 + n.left.len() + n.right.len(),
        }
    }
}

impl<T: Ord> Node<T> {
    fn new(value: T) -> Self {
        Self { value, left: Subtree::new(), right: Subtree::new() }
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut tree = BinaryTree::new();
    tree.insert("foo");
    assert_eq!(tree.len(), 1);
    tree.insert("bar");
    assert!(tree.has(&"foo"));
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn len() {
        let mut tree = BinaryTree::new();
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 0);
        tree.insert(2);
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 1);
        tree.insert(1);
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 2);
        tree.insert(2); // not a unique item
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 2);
    }

    #[test]
    fn has() {
        let mut tree = BinaryTree::new();
        fn check_has(tree: &BinaryTree<i32>, exp: &[bool]) {
            let got: Vec<bool> =
                (0..exp.len()).map(|i| tree.has(&(i as i32))).collect();
            assert_eq!(&got, exp);
        }

        check_has(&tree, &[false, false, false, false, false]);
        tree.insert(0);
        check_has(&tree, &[true, false, false, false, false]);
        tree.insert(4);
        check_has(&tree, &[true, false, false, false, true]);
        tree.insert(4);
        check_has(&tree, &[true, false, false, false, true]);
        tree.insert(3);
        check_has(&tree, &[true, false, false, true, true]);
    }

    #[test]
    fn unbalanced() {
        let mut tree = BinaryTree::new();
        for i in 0..100 {
            tree.insert(i);
        }
        assert_eq!(tree.len(), 100);
        assert!(tree.has(&50));
    }
}

Tekrar Hoş Geldiniz

Bu oturum 10 dakikalık aralar dahil yaklaşık 1 saat 55 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Ödünç Alma

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 55 dakika sürmelidir. İçerir:

Bir Değeri Ödünç Alma

As we saw before, instead of transferring ownership when calling a function, you can let a function borrow the value:

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Point(i32, i32);

fn add(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> Point {
    Point(p1.0 + p2.0, p1.1 + p2.1)
}

fn main() {
    let p1 = Point(3, 4);
    let p2 = Point(10, 20);
    let p3 = add(&p1, &p2);
    println!("{p1:?} + {p2:?} = {p3:?}");
}

• The add function borrows two points and returns a new point.
• The caller retains ownership of the inputs.

Ödünç Alma Kontrolü

Rust's borrow checker puts constraints on the ways you can borrow values. For a given value, at any time:

• You can have one or more shared references to the value, or
• You can have exactly one exclusive reference to the value.

fn main() {
    let mut a: i32 = 10;
    let b: &i32 = &a;

    {
        let c: &mut i32 = &mut a;
        *c = 20;
    }

    println!("a: {a}");
    println!("b: {b}");
}

Ödünç Alma Hataları

As a concrete example of how these borrowing rules prevent memory errors, consider the case of modifying a collection while there are references to its elements:

fn main() {
    let mut vec = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    let elem = &vec[2];
    vec.push(6);
    println!("{elem}");
}

Similarly, consider the case of iterator invalidation:

fn main() {
    let mut vec = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    for elem in &vec {
        vec.push(elem * 2);
    }
}

İç Değişebilirlik (Interior Mutability)

In some situations, it's necessary to modify data behind a shared (read-only) reference. For example, a shared data structure might have an internal cache, and wish to update that cache from read-only methods.

The "interior mutability" pattern allows exclusive (mutable) access behind a shared reference. The standard library provides several ways to do this, all while still ensuring safety, typically by performing a runtime check.

Cell

Cell wraps a value and allows getting or setting the value using only a shared reference to the Cell. However, it does not allow any references to the inner value. Since there are no references, borrowing rules cannot be broken.

use std::cell::Cell;

fn main() {
    // Note that `cell` is NOT declared as mutable.
    let cell = Cell::new(5);

    cell.set(123);
    println!("{}", cell.get());
}

RefCell

RefCell allows accessing and mutating a wrapped value by providing alternative types Ref and RefMut that emulate &T/&mut T without actually being Rust references.

These types perform dynamic checks using a counter in the RefCell to prevent existence of a RefMut alongside another Ref/RefMut.

By implementing Deref (and DerefMut for RefMut), these types allow calling methods on the inner value without allowing references to escape.

use std::cell::RefCell;

fn main() {
    // Note that `cell` is NOT declared as mutable.
    let cell = RefCell::new(5);

    {
        let mut cell_ref = cell.borrow_mut();
        *cell_ref = 123;

        // This triggers an error at runtime.
        // let other = cell.borrow();
        // println!("{}", *other);
    }

    println!("{cell:?}");
}

Alıştırma: Sağlık İstatistikleri

You're working on implementing a health-monitoring system. As part of that, you need to keep track of users' health statistics.

You'll start with a stubbed function in an impl block as well as a User struct definition. Your goal is to implement the stubbed out method on the User struct defined in the impl block.

Copy the code below to https://play.rust-lang.org/ and fill in the missing method:

// TODO: uyarlamanız (implementation) bittiğinde bu yorum satırını silin.
#![allow(unused_variables, dead_code)]


#![allow(dead_code)]
pub struct User {
    name: String,
    age: u32,
    height: f32,
    visit_count: usize,
    last_blood_pressure: Option<(u32, u32)>,
}

pub struct Measurements {
    height: f32,
    blood_pressure: (u32, u32),
}

pub struct HealthReport<'a> {
    patient_name: &'a str,
    visit_count: u32,
    height_change: f32,
    blood_pressure_change: Option<(i32, i32)>,
}

impl User {
    pub fn new(name: String, age: u32, height: f32) -> Self {
        Self { name, age, height, visit_count: 0, last_blood_pressure: None }
    }

    pub fn visit_doctor(&mut self, measurements: Measurements) -> HealthReport {
        todo!("Update a user's statistics based on measurements from a visit to the doctor")
    }
}

fn main() {
    let bob = User::new(String::from("Bob"), 32, 155.2);
    println!("I'm {} and my age is {}", bob.name, bob.age);
}

#[test]
fn test_visit() {
    let mut bob = User::new(String::from("Bob"), 32, 155.2);
    assert_eq!(bob.visit_count, 0);
    let report =
        bob.visit_doctor(Measurements { height: 156.1, blood_pressure: (120, 80) });
    assert_eq!(report.patient_name, "Bob");
    assert_eq!(report.visit_count, 1);
    assert_eq!(report.blood_pressure_change, None);
    assert!((report.height_change - 0.9).abs() < 0.00001);

    let report =
        bob.visit_doctor(Measurements { height: 156.1, blood_pressure: (115, 76) });

    assert_eq!(report.visit_count, 2);
    assert_eq!(report.blood_pressure_change, Some((-5, -4)));
    assert_eq!(report.height_change, 0.0);
}

Çözüm

#![allow(dead_code)]
pub struct User {
    name: String,
    age: u32,
    height: f32,
    visit_count: usize,
    last_blood_pressure: Option<(u32, u32)>,
}

pub struct Measurements {
    height: f32,
    blood_pressure: (u32, u32),
}

pub struct HealthReport<'a> {
    patient_name: &'a str,
    visit_count: u32,
    height_change: f32,
    blood_pressure_change: Option<(i32, i32)>,
}

impl User {
    pub fn new(name: String, age: u32, height: f32) -> Self {
        Self { name, age, height, visit_count: 0, last_blood_pressure: None }
    }

    pub fn visit_doctor(&mut self, measurements: Measurements) -> HealthReport {
        self.visit_count += 1;
        let bp = measurements.blood_pressure;
        let report = HealthReport {
            patient_name: &self.name,
            visit_count: self.visit_count as u32,
            height_change: measurements.height - self.height,
            blood_pressure_change: match self.last_blood_pressure {
                Some(lbp) => {
                    Some((bp.0 as i32 - lbp.0 as i32, bp.1 as i32 - lbp.1 as i32))
                }
                None => None,
            },
        };
        self.height = measurements.height;
        self.last_blood_pressure = Some(bp);
        report
    }
}

fn main() {
    let bob = User::new(String::from("Bob"), 32, 155.2);
    println!("I'm {} and my age is {}", bob.name, bob.age);
}

#[test]
fn test_visit() {
    let mut bob = User::new(String::from("Bob"), 32, 155.2);
    assert_eq!(bob.visit_count, 0);
    let report =
        bob.visit_doctor(Measurements { height: 156.1, blood_pressure: (120, 80) });
    assert_eq!(report.patient_name, "Bob");
    assert_eq!(report.visit_count, 1);
    assert_eq!(report.blood_pressure_change, None);
    assert!((report.height_change - 0.9).abs() < 0.00001);

    let report =
        bob.visit_doctor(Measurements { height: 156.1, blood_pressure: (115, 76) });

    assert_eq!(report.visit_count, 2);
    assert_eq!(report.blood_pressure_change, Some((-5, -4)));
    assert_eq!(report.height_change, 0.0);
}

Ömürler (Lifetimes)

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 50 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Ömür için Ek Açıklamalar (Annotations)

A reference has a lifetime, which must not "outlive" the value it refers to. This is verified by the borrow checker.

The lifetime can be implicit - this is what we have seen so far. Lifetimes can also be explicit: &'a Point, &'document str. Lifetimes start with ' and 'a is a typical default name. Read &'a Point as "a borrowed Point which is valid for at least the lifetime a".

Lifetimes are always inferred by the compiler: you cannot assign a lifetime yourself. Explicit lifetime annotations create constraints where there is ambiguity; the compiler verifies that there is a valid solution.

Lifetimes become more complicated when considering passing values to and returning values from functions.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Point(i32, i32);

fn left_most(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> &Point {
    if p1.0 < p2.0 {
        p1
    } else {
        p2
    }
}

fn main() {
    let p1: Point = Point(10, 10);
    let p2: Point = Point(20, 20);
    let p3 = left_most(&p1, &p2); // What is the lifetime of p3?
    println!("p3: {p3:?}");
}

fn left_most<'a>(p1: &'a Point, p2: &'a Point) -> &'a Point {

Fonksiyon Çağrılarında Ömürler

Lifetimes for function arguments and return values must be fully specified, but Rust allows lifetimes to be elided in most cases with a few simple rules. This is not inference -- it is just a syntactic shorthand.

• Each argument which does not have a lifetime annotation is given one.
• If there is only one argument lifetime, it is given to all un-annotated return values.
• If there are multiple argument lifetimes, but the first one is for self, that lifetime is given to all un-annotated return values.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Point(i32, i32);

fn cab_distance(p1: &Point, p2: &Point) -> i32 {
    (p1.0 - p2.0).abs() + (p1.1 - p2.1).abs()
}

fn nearest<'a>(points: &'a [Point], query: &Point) -> Option<&'a Point> {
    let mut nearest = None;
    for p in points {
        if let Some((_, nearest_dist)) = nearest {
            let dist = cab_distance(p, query);
            if dist < nearest_dist {
                nearest = Some((p, dist));
            }
        } else {
            nearest = Some((p, cab_distance(p, query)));
        };
    }
    nearest.map(|(p, _)| p)
}

fn main() {
    let points = &[Point(1, 0), Point(1, 0), Point(-1, 0), Point(0, -1)];
    println!("{:?}", nearest(points, &Point(0, 2)));
}

fn nearest<'a, 'q>(points: &'a [Point], query: &'q Point) -> Option<&'q Point> {

Veri Yapılarında Ömürler

If a data type stores borrowed data, it must be annotated with a lifetime:

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Highlight<'doc>(&'doc str);

fn erase(text: String) {
    println!("Bye {text}!");
}

fn main() {
    let text = String::from("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.");
    let fox = Highlight(&text[4..19]);
    let dog = Highlight(&text[35..43]);
    // erase(text);
    println!("{fox:?}");
    println!("{dog:?}");
}

Alıştırma: Protobuf Ayrıştırma

In this exercise, you will build a parser for the protobuf binary encoding. Don't worry, it's simpler than it seems! This illustrates a common parsing pattern, passing slices of data. The underlying data itself is never copied.

Fully parsing a protobuf message requires knowing the types of the fields, indexed by their field numbers. That is typically provided in a proto file. In this exercise, we'll encode that information into match statements in functions that get called for each field.

We'll use the following proto:

message PhoneNumber {
  optional string number = 1;
  optional string type = 2;
}

message Person {
  optional string name = 1;
  optional int32 id = 2;
  repeated PhoneNumber phones = 3;
}

Messages

A proto message is encoded as a series of fields, one after the next. Each is implemented as a "tag" followed by the value. The tag contains a field number (e.g., 2 for the id field of a Person message) and a wire type defining how the payload should be determined from the byte stream. These are combined into a single integer, as decoded in unpack_tag below.

Varint

Integers, including the tag, are represented with a variable-length encoding called VARINT. Luckily, parse_varint is defined for you below.

Wire Types

Proto defines several wire types, only two of which are used in this exercise.

The Varint wire type contains a single varint, and is used to encode proto values of type int32 such as Person.id.

The Len wire type contains a length expressed as a varint, followed by a payload of that number of bytes. This is used to encode proto values of type string such as Person.name. It is also used to encode proto values containing sub-messages such as Person.phones, where the payload contains an encoding of the sub-message.

Alıştırma

The given code also defines callbacks to handle Person and PhoneNumber fields, and to parse a message into a series of calls to those callbacks.

What remains for you is to implement the parse_field function and the ProtoMessage trait for Person and PhoneNumber.

/// A wire type as seen on the wire.
enum WireType {
    /// The Varint WireType indicates the value is a single VARINT.
    Varint,
    // The I64 WireType indicates that the value is precisely 8 bytes in
    // little-endian order containing a 64-bit signed integer or double type.
    //I64,  -- not needed for this exercise
    /// The Len WireType indicates that the value is a length represented as a
    /// VARINT followed by exactly that number of bytes.
    Len,
    // The I32 WireType indicates that the value is precisely 4 bytes in
    // little-endian order containing a 32-bit signed integer or float type.
    //I32,  -- not needed for this exercise
}

#[derive(Debug)]
/// A field's value, typed based on the wire type.
enum FieldValue<'a> {
    Varint(u64),
    //I64(i64),  -- not needed for this exercise
    Len(&'a [u8]),
    //I32(i32),  -- not needed for this exercise
}

#[derive(Debug)]
/// A field, containing the field number and its value.
struct Field<'a> {
    field_num: u64,
    value: FieldValue<'a>,
}

trait ProtoMessage<'a>: Default {
    fn add_field(&mut self, field: Field<'a>);
}

impl From<u64> for WireType {
    fn from(value: u64) -> Self {
        match value {
            0 => WireType::Varint,
            //1 => WireType::I64,  -- not needed for this exercise
            2 => WireType::Len,
            //5 => WireType::I32,  -- not needed for this exercise
            _ => panic!("Invalid wire type: {value}"),
        }
    }
}

impl<'a> FieldValue<'a> {
    fn as_str(&self) -> &'a str {
        let FieldValue::Len(data) = self else {
            panic!("Expected string to be a `Len` field");
        };
        std::str::from_utf8(data).expect("Invalid string")
    }

    fn as_bytes(&self) -> &'a [u8] {
        let FieldValue::Len(data) = self else {
            panic!("Expected bytes to be a `Len` field");
        };
        data
    }

    fn as_u64(&self) -> u64 {
        let FieldValue::Varint(value) = self else {
            panic!("Expected `u64` to be a `Varint` field");
        };
        *value
    }
}

/// Parse a VARINT, returning the parsed value and the remaining bytes.
fn parse_varint(data: &[u8]) -> (u64, &[u8]) {
    for i in 0..7 {
        let Some(b) = data.get(i) else {
            panic!("Not enough bytes for varint");
        };
        if b & 0x80 == 0 {
            // This is the last byte of the VARINT, so convert it to
            // a u64 and return it.
            let mut value = 0u64;
            for b in data[..=i].iter().rev() {
                value = (value << 7) | (b & 0x7f) as u64;
            }
            return (value, &data[i + 1..]);
        }
    }

    // More than 7 bytes is invalid.
    panic!("Too many bytes for varint");
}

/// Convert a tag into a field number and a WireType.
fn unpack_tag(tag: u64) -> (u64, WireType) {
    let field_num = tag >> 3;
    let wire_type = WireType::from(tag & 0x7);
    (field_num, wire_type)
}


/// Parse a field, returning the remaining bytes
fn parse_field(data: &[u8]) -> (Field, &[u8]) {
    let (tag, remainder) = parse_varint(data);
    let (field_num, wire_type) = unpack_tag(tag);
    let (fieldvalue, remainder) = match wire_type {
        _ => todo!("Based on the wire type, build a Field, consuming as many bytes as necessary.")
    };
    todo!("Return the field, and any un-consumed bytes.")
}

/// Parse a message in the given data, calling `T::add_field` for each field in
/// the message.
///
/// The entire input is consumed.
fn parse_message<'a, T: ProtoMessage<'a>>(mut data: &'a [u8]) -> T {
    let mut result = T::default();
    while !data.is_empty() {
        let parsed = parse_field(data);
        result.add_field(parsed.0);
        data = parsed.1;
    }
    result
}

#[derive(Debug, Default)]
struct PhoneNumber<'a> {
    number: &'a str,
    type_: &'a str,
}

#[derive(Debug, Default)]
struct Person<'a> {
    name: &'a str,
    id: u64,
    phone: Vec<PhoneNumber<'a>>,
}

// TODO: Implement ProtoMessage for Person and PhoneNumber.

fn main() {
    let person_id: Person = parse_message(&[0x10, 0x2a]);
    assert_eq!(person_id, Person { name: "", id: 42, phone: vec![] });

    let person_name: Person = parse_message(&[
        0x0a, 0x0e, 0x62, 0x65, 0x61, 0x75, 0x74, 0x69, 0x66, 0x75, 0x6c, 0x20,
        0x6e, 0x61, 0x6d, 0x65,
    ]);
    assert_eq!(person_name, Person { name: "beautiful name", id: 0, phone: vec![] });

    let person_name_id: Person =
        parse_message(&[0x0a, 0x04, 0x45, 0x76, 0x61, 0x6e, 0x10, 0x16]);
    assert_eq!(person_name_id, Person { name: "Evan", id: 22, phone: vec![] });

    let phone: Person = parse_message(&[
        0x0a, 0x00, 0x10, 0x00, 0x1a, 0x16, 0x0a, 0x0e, 0x2b, 0x31, 0x32, 0x33,
        0x34, 0x2d, 0x37, 0x37, 0x37, 0x2d, 0x39, 0x30, 0x39, 0x30, 0x12, 0x04,
        0x68, 0x6f, 0x6d, 0x65,
    ]);
    assert_eq!(
        phone,
        Person {
            name: "",
            id: 0,
            phone: vec![PhoneNumber { number: "+1234-777-9090", type_: "home" },],
        }
    );

    // Put that all together into a single parse.
    let person: Person = parse_message(&[
        0x0a, 0x07, 0x6d, 0x61, 0x78, 0x77, 0x65, 0x6c, 0x6c, 0x10, 0x2a, 0x1a,
        0x16, 0x0a, 0x0e, 0x2b, 0x31, 0x32, 0x30, 0x32, 0x2d, 0x35, 0x35, 0x35,
        0x2d, 0x31, 0x32, 0x31, 0x32, 0x12, 0x04, 0x68, 0x6f, 0x6d, 0x65, 0x1a,
        0x18, 0x0a, 0x0e, 0x2b, 0x31, 0x38, 0x30, 0x30, 0x2d, 0x38, 0x36, 0x37,
        0x2d, 0x35, 0x33, 0x30, 0x38, 0x12, 0x06, 0x6d, 0x6f, 0x62, 0x69, 0x6c,
        0x65,
    ]);
    assert_eq!(
        person,
        Person {
            name: "maxwell",
            id: 42,
            phone: vec![
                PhoneNumber { number: "+1202-555-1212", type_: "home" },
                PhoneNumber { number: "+1800-867-5308", type_: "mobile" },
            ]
        }
    );
}

Çözüm

/// A wire type as seen on the wire.
enum WireType {
    /// The Varint WireType indicates the value is a single VARINT.
    Varint,
    // The I64 WireType indicates that the value is precisely 8 bytes in
    // little-endian order containing a 64-bit signed integer or double type.
    //I64,  -- not needed for this exercise
    /// The Len WireType indicates that the value is a length represented as a
    /// VARINT followed by exactly that number of bytes.
    Len,
    // The I32 WireType indicates that the value is precisely 4 bytes in
    // little-endian order containing a 32-bit signed integer or float type.
    //I32,  -- not needed for this exercise
}

#[derive(Debug)]
/// A field's value, typed based on the wire type.
enum FieldValue<'a> {
    Varint(u64),
    //I64(i64),  -- not needed for this exercise
    Len(&'a [u8]),
    //I32(i32),  -- not needed for this exercise
}

#[derive(Debug)]
/// A field, containing the field number and its value.
struct Field<'a> {
    field_num: u64,
    value: FieldValue<'a>,
}

trait ProtoMessage<'a>: Default {
    fn add_field(&mut self, field: Field<'a>);
}

impl From<u64> for WireType {
    fn from(value: u64) -> Self {
        match value {
            0 => WireType::Varint,
            //1 => WireType::I64,  -- not needed for this exercise
            2 => WireType::Len,
            //5 => WireType::I32,  -- not needed for this exercise
            _ => panic!("Invalid wire type: {value}"),
        }
    }
}

impl<'a> FieldValue<'a> {
    fn as_str(&self) -> &'a str {
        let FieldValue::Len(data) = self else {
            panic!("Expected string to be a `Len` field");
        };
        std::str::from_utf8(data).expect("Invalid string")
    }

    fn as_bytes(&self) -> &'a [u8] {
        let FieldValue::Len(data) = self else {
            panic!("Expected bytes to be a `Len` field");
        };
        data
    }

    fn as_u64(&self) -> u64 {
        let FieldValue::Varint(value) = self else {
            panic!("Expected `u64` to be a `Varint` field");
        };
        *value
    }
}

/// Parse a VARINT, returning the parsed value and the remaining bytes.
fn parse_varint(data: &[u8]) -> (u64, &[u8]) {
    for i in 0..7 {
        let Some(b) = data.get(i) else {
            panic!("Not enough bytes for varint");
        };
        if b & 0x80 == 0 {
            // This is the last byte of the VARINT, so convert it to
            // a u64 and return it.
            let mut value = 0u64;
            for b in data[..=i].iter().rev() {
                value = (value << 7) | (b & 0x7f) as u64;
            }
            return (value, &data[i + 1..]);
        }
    }

    // More than 7 bytes is invalid.
    panic!("Too many bytes for varint");
}

/// Convert a tag into a field number and a WireType.
fn unpack_tag(tag: u64) -> (u64, WireType) {
    let field_num = tag >> 3;
    let wire_type = WireType::from(tag & 0x7);
    (field_num, wire_type)
}

/// Parse a field, returning the remaining bytes
fn parse_field(data: &[u8]) -> (Field, &[u8]) {
    let (tag, remainder) = parse_varint(data);
    let (field_num, wire_type) = unpack_tag(tag);
    let (fieldvalue, remainder) = match wire_type {
        WireType::Varint => {
            let (value, remainder) = parse_varint(remainder);
            (FieldValue::Varint(value), remainder)
        }
        WireType::Len => {
            let (len, remainder) = parse_varint(remainder);
            let len: usize = len.try_into().expect("len not a valid `usize`");
            if remainder.len() < len {
                panic!("Unexpected EOF");
            }
            let (value, remainder) = remainder.split_at(len);
            (FieldValue::Len(value), remainder)
        }
    };
    (Field { field_num, value: fieldvalue }, remainder)
}

/// Parse a message in the given data, calling `T::add_field` for each field in
/// the message.
///
/// The entire input is consumed.
fn parse_message<'a, T: ProtoMessage<'a>>(mut data: &'a [u8]) -> T {
    let mut result = T::default();
    while !data.is_empty() {
        let parsed = parse_field(data);
        result.add_field(parsed.0);
        data = parsed.1;
    }
    result
}

#[derive(PartialEq)]
#[derive(Debug, Default)]
struct PhoneNumber<'a> {
    number: &'a str,
    type_: &'a str,
}

#[derive(PartialEq)]
#[derive(Debug, Default)]
struct Person<'a> {
    name: &'a str,
    id: u64,
    phone: Vec<PhoneNumber<'a>>,
}

impl<'a> ProtoMessage<'a> for Person<'a> {
    fn add_field(&mut self, field: Field<'a>) {
        match field.field_num {
            1 => self.name = field.value.as_str(),
            2 => self.id = field.value.as_u64(),
            3 => self.phone.push(parse_message(field.value.as_bytes())),
            _ => {} // skip everything else
        }
    }
}

impl<'a> ProtoMessage<'a> for PhoneNumber<'a> {
    fn add_field(&mut self, field: Field<'a>) {
        match field.field_num {
            1 => self.number = field.value.as_str(),
            2 => self.type_ = field.value.as_str(),
            _ => {} // skip everything else
        }
    }
}

fn main() {
    let person_id: Person = parse_message(&[0x10, 0x2a]);
    assert_eq!(person_id, Person { name: "", id: 42, phone: vec![] });

    let person_name: Person = parse_message(&[
        0x0a, 0x0e, 0x62, 0x65, 0x61, 0x75, 0x74, 0x69, 0x66, 0x75, 0x6c, 0x20,
        0x6e, 0x61, 0x6d, 0x65,
    ]);
    assert_eq!(person_name, Person { name: "beautiful name", id: 0, phone: vec![] });

    let person_name_id: Person =
        parse_message(&[0x0a, 0x04, 0x45, 0x76, 0x61, 0x6e, 0x10, 0x16]);
    assert_eq!(person_name_id, Person { name: "Evan", id: 22, phone: vec![] });

    let phone: Person = parse_message(&[
        0x0a, 0x00, 0x10, 0x00, 0x1a, 0x16, 0x0a, 0x0e, 0x2b, 0x31, 0x32, 0x33,
        0x34, 0x2d, 0x37, 0x37, 0x37, 0x2d, 0x39, 0x30, 0x39, 0x30, 0x12, 0x04,
        0x68, 0x6f, 0x6d, 0x65,
    ]);
    assert_eq!(
        phone,
        Person {
            name: "",
            id: 0,
            phone: vec![PhoneNumber { number: "+1234-777-9090", type_: "home" },],
        }
    );

    // Put that all together into a single parse.
    let person: Person = parse_message(&[
        0x0a, 0x07, 0x6d, 0x61, 0x78, 0x77, 0x65, 0x6c, 0x6c, 0x10, 0x2a, 0x1a,
        0x16, 0x0a, 0x0e, 0x2b, 0x31, 0x32, 0x30, 0x32, 0x2d, 0x35, 0x35, 0x35,
        0x2d, 0x31, 0x32, 0x31, 0x32, 0x12, 0x04, 0x68, 0x6f, 0x6d, 0x65, 0x1a,
        0x18, 0x0a, 0x0e, 0x2b, 0x31, 0x38, 0x30, 0x30, 0x2d, 0x38, 0x36, 0x37,
        0x2d, 0x35, 0x33, 0x30, 0x38, 0x12, 0x06, 0x6d, 0x6f, 0x62, 0x69, 0x6c,
        0x65,
    ]);
    assert_eq!(
        person,
        Person {
            name: "maxwell",
            id: 42,
            phone: vec![
                PhoneNumber { number: "+1202-555-1212", type_: "home" },
                PhoneNumber { number: "+1800-867-5308", type_: "mobile" },
            ]
        }
    );
}

4. Gün'e Hoş Geldiniz

Today we will cover topics relating to building large-scale software in Rust:

• Iterators: a deep dive on the Iterator trait.
• Modules and visibility.
• Testing.
• Error handling: panics, Result, and the try operator ?.
• Unsafe Rust: the escape hatch when you can't express yourself in safe Rust.

Zamanlama (Schedule)

Bu oturum 10 dakikalık aralar dahil yaklaşık 2 saat 40 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Adımlayıcılar (Iterators)

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 45 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Iterator

The Iterator trait supports iterating over values in a collection. It requires a next method and provides lots of methods. Many standard library types implement Iterator, and you can implement it yourself, too:

struct Fibonacci {
    curr: u32,
    next: u32,
}

impl Iterator for Fibonacci {
    type Item = u32;

    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {
        let new_next = self.curr + self.next;
        self.curr = self.next;
        self.next = new_next;
        Some(self.curr)
    }
}

fn main() {
    let fib = Fibonacci { curr: 0, next: 1 };
    for (i, n) in fib.enumerate().take(5) {
        println!("fib({i}): {n}");
    }
}

IntoIterator

The Iterator trait tells you how to iterate once you have created an iterator. The related trait IntoIterator defines how to create an iterator for a type. It is used automatically by the for loop.

struct Grid {
    x_coords: Vec<u32>,
    y_coords: Vec<u32>,
}

impl IntoIterator for Grid {
    type Item = (u32, u32);
    type IntoIter = GridIter;
    fn into_iter(self) -> GridIter {
        GridIter { grid: self, i: 0, j: 0 }
    }
}

struct GridIter {
    grid: Grid,
    i: usize,
    j: usize,
}

impl Iterator for GridIter {
    type Item = (u32, u32);

    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<(u32, u32)> {
        if self.i >= self.grid.x_coords.len() {
            self.i = 0;
            self.j += 1;
            if self.j >= self.grid.y_coords.len() {
                return None;
            }
        }
        let res = Some((self.grid.x_coords[self.i], self.grid.y_coords[self.j]));
        self.i += 1;
        res
    }
}

fn main() {
    let grid = Grid { x_coords: vec![3, 5, 7, 9], y_coords: vec![10, 20, 30, 40] };
    for (x, y) in grid {
        println!("point = {x}, {y}");
    }
}

FromIterator

FromIterator lets you build a collection from an Iterator.

fn main() {
    let primes = vec![2, 3, 5, 7];
    let prime_squares = primes.into_iter().map(|p| p * p).collect::<Vec<_>>();
    println!("prime_squares: {prime_squares:?}");
}

fn collect<B>(self) -> B
where
    B: FromIterator<Self::Item>,
    Self: Sized

Alıştırma: Adımlayıcı Metot Zincirleme

In this exercise, you will need to find and use some of the provided methods in the Iterator trait to implement a complex calculation.

Copy the following code to https://play.rust-lang.org/ and make the tests pass. Use an iterator expression and collect the result to construct the return value.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
/// Calculate the differences between elements of `values` offset by `offset`,
/// wrapping around from the end of `values` to the beginning.
///
/// Element `n` of the result is `values[(n+offset)%len] - values[n]`.
fn offset_differences(offset: usize, values: Vec<i32>) -> Vec<i32> {
    unimplemented!()
}

#[test]
fn test_offset_one() {
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![2, 2, 2, -6]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![1, 3, 5]), vec![2, 2, -4]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![1, 3]), vec![2, -2]);
}

#[test]
fn test_larger_offsets() {
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(2, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![4, 4, -4, -4]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(3, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![6, -2, -2, -2]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(4, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![0, 0, 0, 0]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(5, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![2, 2, 2, -6]);
}

#[test]
fn test_degenerate_cases() {
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![0]), vec![0]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![1]), vec![0]);
    let empty: Vec<i32> = vec![];
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, empty), vec![]);
}
}

Çözüm

/// Calculate the differences between elements of `values` offset by `offset`,
/// wrapping around from the end of `values` to the beginning.
///
/// Element `n` of the result is `values[(n+offset)%len] - values[n]`.
fn offset_differences(offset: usize, values: Vec<i32>) -> Vec<i32> {
    let a = (&values).into_iter();
    let b = (&values).into_iter().cycle().skip(offset);
    a.zip(b).map(|(a, b)| *b - *a).collect()
}

#[test]
fn test_offset_one() {
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![2, 2, 2, -6]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![1, 3, 5]), vec![2, 2, -4]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![1, 3]), vec![2, -2]);
}

#[test]
fn test_larger_offsets() {
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(2, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![4, 4, -4, -4]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(3, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![6, -2, -2, -2]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(4, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![0, 0, 0, 0]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(5, vec![1, 3, 5, 7]), vec![2, 2, 2, -6]);
}

#[test]
fn test_degenerate_cases() {
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![0]), vec![0]);
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, vec![1]), vec![0]);
    let empty: Vec<i32> = vec![];
    assert_eq!(offset_differences(1, empty), vec![]);
}

fn main() {}

Modüller

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 40 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Modüller

We have seen how impl blocks let us namespace functions to a type.

Similarly, mod lets us namespace types and functions:

mod foo {
    pub fn do_something() {
        println!("In the foo module");
    }
}

mod bar {
    pub fn do_something() {
        println!("In the bar module");
    }
}

fn main() {
    foo::do_something();
    bar::do_something();
}

Dosya Sistemi Hiyerarşisi

Omitting the module content will tell Rust to look for it in another file:

mod garden;

This tells Rust that the garden module content is found at src/garden.rs. Similarly, a garden::vegetables module can be found at src/garden/vegetables.rs.

The crate root is in:

• src/lib.rs (for a library crate)
• src/main.rs (for a binary crate)

Modules defined in files can be documented, too, using "inner doc comments". These document the item that contains them -- in this case, a module.

//! This module implements the garden, including a highly performant germination
//! implementation.

// Re-export types from this module.
pub use garden::Garden;
pub use seeds::SeedPacket;

/// Sow the given seed packets.
pub fn sow(seeds: Vec<SeedPacket>) {
    todo!()
}

/// Harvest the produce in the garden that is ready.
pub fn harvest(garden: &mut Garden) {
    todo!()
}

Görünürlük

Modules are a privacy boundary:

• Module items are private by default (hides implementation details).
• Parent and sibling items are always visible.
• In other words, if an item is visible in module foo, it's visible in all the descendants of foo.

mod outer {
    fn private() {
        println!("outer::private");
    }

    pub fn public() {
        println!("outer::public");
    }

    mod inner {
        fn private() {
            println!("outer::inner::private");
        }

        pub fn public() {
            println!("outer::inner::public");
            super::private();
        }
    }
}

fn main() {
    outer::public();
}

use, super, self

A module can bring symbols from another module into scope with use. You will typically see something like this at the top of each module:

use std::collections::HashSet;
use std::process::abort;

Yollar (Paths)

Paths are resolved as follows:

1. As a relative path:

   • foo or self::foo refers to foo in the current module,
   • super::foo refers to foo in the parent module.

2. As an absolute path:

   • crate::foo refers to foo in the root of the current crate,
   • bar::foo refers to foo in the bar crate.

Alıştırma: Bir GUI Kütüphanesi için Modüller

In this exercise, you will reorganize a small GUI Library implementation. This library defines a Widget trait and a few implementations of that trait, as well as a main function.

It is typical to put each type or set of closely-related types into its own module, so each widget type should get its own module.

Cargo Kurulumu (Setup)

The Rust playground only supports one file, so you will need to make a Cargo project on your local filesystem:

cargo init gui-modules
cd gui-modules
cargo run

Edit the resulting src/main.rs to add mod statements, and add additional files in the src directory.

Source

Here's the single-module implementation of the GUI library:

pub trait Widget {
    /// Natural width of `self`.
    fn width(&self) -> usize;

    /// Draw the widget into a buffer.
    fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write);

    /// Draw the widget on standard output.
    fn draw(&self) {
        let mut buffer = String::new();
        self.draw_into(&mut buffer);
        println!("{buffer}");
    }
}

pub struct Label {
    label: String,
}

impl Label {
    fn new(label: &str) -> Label {
        Label { label: label.to_owned() }
    }
}

pub struct Button {
    label: Label,
}

impl Button {
    fn new(label: &str) -> Button {
        Button { label: Label::new(label) }
    }
}

pub struct Window {
    title: String,
    widgets: Vec<Box<dyn Widget>>,
}

impl Window {
    fn new(title: &str) -> Window {
        Window { title: title.to_owned(), widgets: Vec::new() }
    }

    fn add_widget(&mut self, widget: Box<dyn Widget>) {
        self.widgets.push(widget);
    }

    fn inner_width(&self) -> usize {
        std::cmp::max(
            self.title.chars().count(),
            self.widgets.iter().map(|w| w.width()).max().unwrap_or(0),
        )
    }
}

impl Widget for Window {
    fn width(&self) -> usize {
        // Add 4 paddings for borders
        self.inner_width() + 4
    }

    fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {
        let mut inner = String::new();
        for widget in &self.widgets {
            widget.draw_into(&mut inner);
        }

        let inner_width = self.inner_width();

        // TODO: Change draw_into to return Result<(), std::fmt::Error>. Then use the
        // ?-operator here instead of .unwrap().
        writeln!(buffer, "+-{:-<inner_width$}-+", "").unwrap();
        writeln!(buffer, "| {:^inner_width$} |", &self.title).unwrap();
        writeln!(buffer, "+={:=<inner_width$}=+", "").unwrap();
        for line in inner.lines() {
            writeln!(buffer, "| {:inner_width$} |", line).unwrap();
        }
        writeln!(buffer, "+-{:-<inner_width$}-+", "").unwrap();
    }
}

impl Widget for Button {
    fn width(&self) -> usize {
        self.label.width() + 8 // add a bit of padding
    }

    fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {
        let width = self.width();
        let mut label = String::new();
        self.label.draw_into(&mut label);

        writeln!(buffer, "+{:-<width$}+", "").unwrap();
        for line in label.lines() {
            writeln!(buffer, "|{:^width$}|", &line).unwrap();
        }
        writeln!(buffer, "+{:-<width$}+", "").unwrap();
    }
}

impl Widget for Label {
    fn width(&self) -> usize {
        self.label.lines().map(|line| line.chars().count()).max().unwrap_or(0)
    }

    fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {
        writeln!(buffer, "{}", &self.label).unwrap();
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut window = Window::new("Rust GUI Demo 1.23");
    window.add_widget(Box::new(Label::new("This is a small text GUI demo.")));
    window.add_widget(Box::new(Button::new("Click me!")));
    window.draw();
}

Çözüm

src
├── main.rs
├── widgets
│   ├── button.rs
│   ├── label.rs
│   └── window.rs
└── widgets.rs

// ---- src/widgets.rs ----
mod button;
mod label;
mod window;

pub trait Widget {
    /// Natural width of `self`.
    fn width(&self) -> usize;

    /// Draw the widget into a buffer.
    fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write);

    /// Draw the widget on standard output.
    fn draw(&self) {
        let mut buffer = String::new();
        self.draw_into(&mut buffer);
        println!("{buffer}");
    }
}

pub use button::Button;
pub use label::Label;
pub use window::Window;

// ---- src/widgets/label.rs ----
use super::Widget;

pub struct Label {
    label: String,
}

impl Label {
    pub fn new(label: &str) -> Label {
        Label { label: label.to_owned() }
    }
}

impl Widget for Label {
    fn width(&self) -> usize {
        // ANCHOR_END: Label-width
        self.label.lines().map(|line| line.chars().count()).max().unwrap_or(0)
    }

    // ANCHOR: Label-draw_into
    fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {
        // ANCHOR_END: Label-draw_into
        writeln!(buffer, "{}", &self.label).unwrap();
    }
}

// ---- src/widgets/button.rs ----
use super::{Label, Widget};

pub struct Button {
    label: Label,
}

impl Button {
    pub fn new(label: &str) -> Button {
        Button { label: Label::new(label) }
    }
}

impl Widget for Button {
    fn width(&self) -> usize {
        // ANCHOR_END: Button-width
        self.label.width() + 8 // add a bit of padding
    }

    // ANCHOR: Button-draw_into
    fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {
        // ANCHOR_END: Button-draw_into
        let width = self.width();
        let mut label = String::new();
        self.label.draw_into(&mut label);

        writeln!(buffer, "+{:-<width$}+", "").unwrap();
        for line in label.lines() {
            writeln!(buffer, "|{:^width$}|", &line).unwrap();
        }
        writeln!(buffer, "+{:-<width$}+", "").unwrap();
    }
}

// ---- src/widgets/window.rs ----
use super::Widget;

pub struct Window {
    title: String,
    widgets: Vec<Box<dyn Widget>>,
}

impl Window {
    pub fn new(title: &str) -> Window {
        Window { title: title.to_owned(), widgets: Vec::new() }
    }

    pub fn add_widget(&mut self, widget: Box<dyn Widget>) {
        self.widgets.push(widget);
    }

    fn inner_width(&self) -> usize {
        std::cmp::max(
            self.title.chars().count(),
            self.widgets.iter().map(|w| w.width()).max().unwrap_or(0),
        )
    }
}

impl Widget for Window {
    fn width(&self) -> usize {
        // ANCHOR_END: Window-width
        // Add 4 paddings for borders
        self.inner_width() + 4
    }

    // ANCHOR: Window-draw_into
    fn draw_into(&self, buffer: &mut dyn std::fmt::Write) {
        // ANCHOR_END: Window-draw_into
        let mut inner = String::new();
        for widget in &self.widgets {
            widget.draw_into(&mut inner);
        }

        let inner_width = self.inner_width();

        // TODO: after learning about error handling, you can change
        // draw_into to return Result<(), std::fmt::Error>. Then use
        // the ?-operator here instead of .unwrap().
        writeln!(buffer, "+-{:-<inner_width$}-+", "").unwrap();
        writeln!(buffer, "| {:^inner_width$} |", &self.title).unwrap();
        writeln!(buffer, "+={:=<inner_width$}=+", "").unwrap();
        for line in inner.lines() {
            writeln!(buffer, "| {:inner_width$} |", line).unwrap();
        }
        writeln!(buffer, "+-{:-<inner_width$}-+", "").unwrap();
    }
}

// ---- src/main.rs ----
mod widgets;

use widgets::Widget;

fn main() {
    let mut window = widgets::Window::new("Rust GUI Demo 1.23");
    window
        .add_widget(Box::new(widgets::Label::new("This is a small text GUI demo.")));
    window.add_widget(Box::new(widgets::Button::new("Click me!")));
    window.draw();
}

Test Etme

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 45 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Birim Testleri

Rust and Cargo come with a simple unit test framework:

• Unit tests are supported throughout your code.

• Integration tests are supported via the tests/ directory.

Tests are marked with #[test]. Unit tests are often put in a nested tests module, using #[cfg(test)] to conditionally compile them only when building tests.

fn first_word(text: &str) -> &str {
    match text.find(' ') {
        Some(idx) => &text[..idx],
        None => &text,
    }
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn test_empty() {
        assert_eq!(first_word(""), "");
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_single_word() {
        assert_eq!(first_word("Merhaba"), "Merhaba");
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_multiple_words() {
        assert_eq!(first_word("Merhaba Dünya"), "Merhaba");
    }
}

• This lets you unit test private helpers.
• The #[cfg(test)] attribute is only active when you run cargo test.

Diğer Test Türleri

Entegrasyon Testleri

If you want to test your library as a client, use an integration test.

Create a .rs file under tests/:

// tests/my_library.rs
use my_library::init;

#[test]
fn test_init() {
    assert!(init().is_ok());
}

These tests only have access to the public API of your crate.

Dokümantasyon Testleri

Rust has built-in support for documentation tests:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
/// Shortens a string to the given length.
///
/// ```
/// # use playground::shorten_string;
/// assert_eq!(shorten_string("Hello World", 5), "Hello");
/// assert_eq!(shorten_string("Hello World", 20), "Hello World");
/// ```
pub fn shorten_string(s: &str, length: usize) -> &str {
    &s[..std::cmp::min(length, s.len())]
}
}

• Code blocks in /// comments are automatically seen as Rust code.
• The code will be compiled and executed as part of cargo test.
• Adding # in the code will hide it from the docs, but will still compile/run it.
• Test the above code on the Rust Playground.

Derleyici Tüyleri (Lint) ve Clippy Aracı

The Rust compiler produces fantastic error messages, as well as helpful built-in lints. Clippy provides even more lints, organized into groups that can be enabled per-project.

#[deny(clippy::cast_possible_truncation)]
fn main() {
    let x = 3;
    while (x < 70000) {
        x *= 2;
    }
    println!("X probably fits in a u16, right? {}", x as u16);
}

Alıştırma: Luhn Algrotiması

The Luhn algorithm is used to validate credit card numbers. The algorithm takes a string as input and does the following to validate the credit card number:

• Ignore all spaces. Reject numbers with fewer than two digits.

• Moving from right to left, double every second digit: for the number 1234, we double 3 and 1. For the number 98765, we double 6 and 8.

• After doubling a digit, sum the digits if the result is greater than 9. So doubling 7 becomes 14 which becomes 1 + 4 = 5.

• Sum all the undoubled and doubled digits.

• The credit card number is valid if the sum ends with 0.

The provided code provides a buggy implementation of the luhn algorithm, along with two basic unit tests that confirm that most of the algorithm is implemented correctly.

Copy the code below to https://play.rust-lang.org/ and write additional tests to uncover bugs in the provided implementation, fixing any bugs you find.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
pub fn luhn(cc_number: &str) -> bool {
    let mut sum = 0;
    let mut double = false;

    for c in cc_number.chars().rev() {
        if let Some(digit) = c.to_digit(10) {
            if double {
                let double_digit = digit * 2;
                sum +=
                    if double_digit > 9 { double_digit - 9 } else { double_digit };
            } else {
                sum += digit;
            }
            double = !double;
        } else {
            continue;
        }
    }

    sum % 10 == 0
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod test {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn test_valid_cc_number() {
        assert!(luhn("4263 9826 4026 9299"));
        assert!(luhn("4539 3195 0343 6467"));
        assert!(luhn("7992 7398 713"));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_invalid_cc_number() {
        assert!(!luhn("4223 9826 4026 9299"));
        assert!(!luhn("4539 3195 0343 6476"));
        assert!(!luhn("8273 1232 7352 0569"));
    }
}
}

Çözüm

// This is the buggy version that appears in the problem.
#[cfg(never)]
pub fn luhn(cc_number: &str) -> bool {
    let mut sum = 0;
    let mut double = false;

    for c in cc_number.chars().rev() {
        if let Some(digit) = c.to_digit(10) {
            if double {
                let double_digit = digit * 2;
                sum +=
                    if double_digit > 9 { double_digit - 9 } else { double_digit };
            } else {
                sum += digit;
            }
            double = !double;
        } else {
            continue;
        }
    }

    sum % 10 == 0
}

// This is the solution and passes all of the tests below.
pub fn luhn(cc_number: &str) -> bool {
    let mut sum = 0;
    let mut double = false;
    let mut digits = 0;

    for c in cc_number.chars().rev() {
        if let Some(digit) = c.to_digit(10) {
            digits += 1;
            if double {
                let double_digit = digit * 2;
                sum +=
                    if double_digit > 9 { double_digit - 9 } else { double_digit };
            } else {
                sum += digit;
            }
            double = !double;
        } else if c.is_whitespace() {
            // New: accept whitespace.
            continue;
        } else {
            // New: reject all other characters.
            return false;
        }
    }

    // New: check that we have at least two digits
    digits >= 2 && sum % 10 == 0
}

fn main() {
    let cc_number = "1234 5678 1234 5670";
    println!(
        "Is {cc_number} a valid credit card number? {}",
        if luhn(cc_number) { "yes" } else { "no" }
    );
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod test {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn test_valid_cc_number() {
        assert!(luhn("4263 9826 4026 9299"));
        assert!(luhn("4539 3195 0343 6467"));
        assert!(luhn("7992 7398 713"));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_invalid_cc_number() {
        assert!(!luhn("4223 9826 4026 9299"));
        assert!(!luhn("4539 3195 0343 6476"));
        assert!(!luhn("8273 1232 7352 0569"));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_non_digit_cc_number() {
        assert!(!luhn("foo"));
        assert!(!luhn("foo 0 0"));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_empty_cc_number() {
        assert!(!luhn(""));
        assert!(!luhn(" "));
        assert!(!luhn("  "));
        assert!(!luhn("    "));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_single_digit_cc_number() {
        assert!(!luhn("0"));
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_two_digit_cc_number() {
        assert!(luhn(" 0 0 "));
    }
}

Tekrar Hoş Geldiniz

Bu oturum 10 dakikalık aralar dahil yaklaşık 2 saat 20 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Hata İşleme

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 1 saat 5 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Panic'ler

Rust handles fatal errors with a "panic".

Rust will trigger a panic if a fatal error happens at runtime:

fn main() {
    let v = vec![10, 20, 30];
    println!("v[100]: {}", v[100]);
}

• Panics are for unrecoverable and unexpected errors.
  • Panics are symptoms of bugs in the program.
  • Runtime failures like failed bounds checks can panic
  • Assertions (such as assert!) panic on failure
  • Purpose-specific panics can use the panic! macro.
• A panic will "unwind" the stack, dropping values just as if the functions had returned.
• Use non-panicking APIs (such as Vec::get) if crashing is not acceptable.

use std::panic;

fn main() {
    let result = panic::catch_unwind(|| "No problem here!");
    println!("{result:?}");

    let result = panic::catch_unwind(|| {
        panic!("oh no!");
    });
    println!("{result:?}");
}

Result

Our primary mechanism for error handling in Rust is the Result enum, which we briefly saw when discussing standard library types.

use std::fs::File;
use std::io::Read;

fn main() {
    let file: Result<File, std::io::Error> = File::open("diary.txt");
    match file {
        Ok(mut file) => {
            let mut contents = String::new();
            if let Ok(bytes) = file.read_to_string(&mut contents) {
                println!("Dear diary: {contents} ({bytes} bytes)");
            } else {
                println!("Could not read file content");
            }
        }
        Err(err) => {
            println!("The diary could not be opened: {err}");
        }
    }
}

Try Operatörü

Runtime errors like connection-refused or file-not-found are handled with the Result type, but matching this type on every call can be cumbersome. The try-operator ? is used to return errors to the caller. It lets you turn the common

match some_expression {
    Ok(value) => value,
    Err(err) => return Err(err),
}

into the much simpler

some_expression?

We can use this to simplify our error handling code:

use std::io::Read;
use std::{fs, io};

fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result<String, io::Error> {
    let username_file_result = fs::File::open(path);
    let mut username_file = match username_file_result {
        Ok(file) => file,
        Err(err) => return Err(err),
    };

    let mut username = String::new();
    match username_file.read_to_string(&mut username) {
        Ok(_) => Ok(username),
        Err(err) => Err(err),
    }
}

fn main() {
    //fs::write("config.dat", "alice").unwrap();
    let username = read_username("config.dat");
    println!("username or error: {username:?}");
}

Try Dönüşümleri

The effective expansion of ? is a little more complicated than previously indicated:

expression?

works the same as

match expression {
    Ok(value) => value,
    Err(err)  => return Err(From::from(err)),
}

The From::from call here means we attempt to convert the error type to the type returned by the function. This makes it easy to encapsulate errors into higher-level errors.

Örnek

use std::error::Error;
use std::io::Read;
use std::{fmt, fs, io};

#[derive(Debug)]
enum ReadUsernameError {
    IoError(io::Error),
    EmptyUsername(String),
}

impl Error for ReadUsernameError {}

impl fmt::Display for ReadUsernameError {
    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
        match self {
            Self::IoError(e) => write!(f, "I/O error: {e}"),
            Self::EmptyUsername(path) => write!(f, "Found no username in {path}"),
        }
    }
}

impl From<io::Error> for ReadUsernameError {
    fn from(err: io::Error) -> Self {
        Self::IoError(err)
    }
}

fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result<String, ReadUsernameError> {
    let mut username = String::with_capacity(100);
    fs::File::open(path)?.read_to_string(&mut username)?;
    if username.is_empty() {
        return Err(ReadUsernameError::EmptyUsername(String::from(path)));
    }
    Ok(username)
}

fn main() {
    //std::fs::write("config.dat", "").unwrap();
    let username = read_username("config.dat");
    println!("username or error: {username:?}");
}

Dinamik Hata Türleri

Sometimes we want to allow any type of error to be returned without writing our own enum covering all the different possibilities. The std::error::Error trait makes it easy to create a trait object that can contain any error.

use std::error::Error;
use std::fs;
use std::io::Read;

fn read_count(path: &str) -> Result<i32, Box<dyn Error>> {
    let mut count_str = String::new();
    fs::File::open(path)?.read_to_string(&mut count_str)?;
    let count: i32 = count_str.parse()?;
    Ok(count)
}

fn main() {
    fs::write("count.dat", "1i3").unwrap();
    match read_count("count.dat") {
        Ok(count) => println!("Count: {count}"),
        Err(err) => println!("Error: {err}"),
    }
}

thiserror

The thiserror crate provides macros to help avoid boilerplate when defining error types. It provides derive macros that assist in implementing From<T>, Display, and the Error trait.

use std::io::Read;
use std::{fs, io};
use thiserror::Error;

#[derive(Debug, Error)]
enum ReadUsernameError {
    #[error("I/O error: {0}")]
    IoError(#[from] io::Error),
    #[error("Found no username in {0}")]
    EmptyUsername(String),
}

fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result<String, ReadUsernameError> {
    let mut username = String::with_capacity(100);
    fs::File::open(path)?.read_to_string(&mut username)?;
    if username.is_empty() {
        return Err(ReadUsernameError::EmptyUsername(String::from(path)));
    }
    Ok(username)
}

fn main() {
    //fs::write("config.dat", "").unwrap();
    match read_username("config.dat") {
        Ok(username) => println!("Username: {username}"),
        Err(err) => println!("Error: {err:?}"),
    }
}

anyhow

The anyhow crate provides a rich error type with support for carrying additional contextual information, which can be used to provide a semantic trace of what the program was doing leading up to the error.

This can be combined with the convenience macros from thiserror to avoid writing out trait impls explicitly for custom error types.

use anyhow::{bail, Context, Result};
use std::fs;
use std::io::Read;
use thiserror::Error;

#[derive(Clone, Debug, Eq, Error, PartialEq)]
#[error("Found no username in {0}")]
struct EmptyUsernameError(String);

fn read_username(path: &str) -> Result<String> {
    let mut username = String::with_capacity(100);
    fs::File::open(path)
        .with_context(|| format!("Failed to open {path}"))?
        .read_to_string(&mut username)
        .context("Failed to read")?;
    if username.is_empty() {
        bail!(EmptyUsernameError(path.to_string()));
    }
    Ok(username)
}

fn main() {
    //fs::write("config.dat", "").unwrap();
    match read_username("config.dat") {
        Ok(username) => println!("Username: {username}"),
        Err(err) => println!("Error: {err:?}"),
    }
}

Alıştırma: Result ile Yeniden Yazma

The following implements a very simple parser for an expression language. However, it handles errors by panicking. Rewrite it to instead use idiomatic error handling and propagate errors to a return from main. Feel free to use thiserror and anyhow.

Hint: start by fixing error handling in the parse function. Once that is working correctly, update Tokenizer to implement Iterator<Item=Result<Token, TokenizerError>> and handle that in the parser.

use std::iter::Peekable;
use std::str::Chars;

/// An arithmetic operator.
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
enum Op {
    Add,
    Sub,
}

/// A token in the expression language.
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
enum Token {
    Number(String),
    Identifier(String),
    Operator(Op),
}

/// An expression in the expression language.
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
enum Expression {
    /// A reference to a variable.
    Var(String),
    /// A literal number.
    Number(u32),
    /// A binary operation.
    Operation(Box<Expression>, Op, Box<Expression>),
}

fn tokenize(input: &str) -> Tokenizer {
    return Tokenizer(input.chars().peekable());
}

struct Tokenizer<'a>(Peekable<Chars<'a>>);

impl<'a> Tokenizer<'a> {
    fn collect_number(&mut self, first_char: char) -> Token {
        let mut num = String::from(first_char);
        while let Some(&c @ '0'..='9') = self.0.peek() {
            num.push(c);
            self.0.next();
        }
        Token::Number(num)
    }

    fn collect_identifier(&mut self, first_char: char) -> Token {
        let mut ident = String::from(first_char);
        while let Some(&c @ ('a'..='z' | '_' | '0'..='9')) = self.0.peek() {
            ident.push(c);
            self.0.next();
        }
        Token::Identifier(ident)
    }
}

impl<'a> Iterator for Tokenizer<'a> {
    type Item = Token;

    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Token> {
        let c = self.0.next()?;
        match c {
            '0'..='9' => Some(self.collect_number(c)),
            'a'..='z' => Some(self.collect_identifier(c)),
            '+' => Some(Token::Operator(Op::Add)),
            '-' => Some(Token::Operator(Op::Sub)),
            _ => panic!("Unexpected character {c}"),
        }
    }
}

fn parse(input: &str) -> Expression {
    let mut tokens = tokenize(input);

    fn parse_expr<'a>(tokens: &mut Tokenizer<'a>) -> Expression {
        let Some(tok) = tokens.next() else {
            panic!("Unexpected end of input");
        };
        let expr = match tok {
            Token::Number(num) => {
                let v = num.parse().expect("Invalid 32-bit integer");
                Expression::Number(v)
            }
            Token::Identifier(ident) => Expression::Var(ident),
            Token::Operator(_) => panic!("Unexpected token {tok:?}"),
        };
        // Look ahead to parse a binary operation if present.
        match tokens.next() {
            None => expr,
            Some(Token::Operator(op)) => Expression::Operation(
                Box::new(expr),
                op,
                Box::new(parse_expr(tokens)),
            ),
            Some(tok) => panic!("Unexpected token {tok:?}"),
        }
    }

    parse_expr(&mut tokens)
}

fn main() {
    let expr = parse("10+foo+20-30");
    println!("{expr:?}");
}

Çözüm

use thiserror::Error;
use std::iter::Peekable;
use std::str::Chars;

/// An arithmetic operator.
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Clone, Copy)]
enum Op {
    Add,
    Sub,
}

/// A token in the expression language.
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
enum Token {
    Number(String),
    Identifier(String),
    Operator(Op),
}

/// An expression in the expression language.
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
enum Expression {
    /// A reference to a variable.
    Var(String),
    /// A literal number.
    Number(u32),
    /// A binary operation.
    Operation(Box<Expression>, Op, Box<Expression>),
}

fn tokenize(input: &str) -> Tokenizer {
    return Tokenizer(input.chars().peekable());
}

#[derive(Debug, Error)]
enum TokenizerError {
    #[error("Unexpected character '{0}' in input")]
    UnexpectedCharacter(char),
}

struct Tokenizer<'a>(Peekable<Chars<'a>>);

impl<'a> Tokenizer<'a> {
    fn collect_number(&mut self, first_char: char) -> Token {
        let mut num = String::from(first_char);
        while let Some(&c @ '0'..='9') = self.0.peek() {
            num.push(c);
            self.0.next();
        }
        Token::Number(num)
    }

    fn collect_identifier(&mut self, first_char: char) -> Token {
        let mut ident = String::from(first_char);
        while let Some(&c @ ('a'..='z' | '_' | '0'..='9')) = self.0.peek() {
            ident.push(c);
            self.0.next();
        }
        Token::Identifier(ident)
    }
}

impl<'a> Iterator for Tokenizer<'a> {
    type Item = Result<Token, TokenizerError>;

    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Result<Token, TokenizerError>> {
        let c = self.0.next()?;
        match c {
            '0'..='9' => Some(Ok(self.collect_number(c))),
            'a'..='z' | '_' => Some(Ok(self.collect_identifier(c))),
            '+' => Some(Ok(Token::Operator(Op::Add))),
            '-' => Some(Ok(Token::Operator(Op::Sub))),
            _ => Some(Err(TokenizerError::UnexpectedCharacter(c))),
        }
    }
}

#[derive(Debug, Error)]
enum ParserError {
    #[error("Tokenizer error: {0}")]
    TokenizerError(#[from] TokenizerError),
    #[error("Unexpected end of input")]
    UnexpectedEOF,
    #[error("Unexpected token {0:?}")]
    UnexpectedToken(Token),
    #[error("Invalid number")]
    InvalidNumber(#[from] std::num::ParseIntError),
}

fn parse(input: &str) -> Result<Expression, ParserError> {
    let mut tokens = tokenize(input);

    fn parse_expr<'a>(
        tokens: &mut Tokenizer<'a>,
    ) -> Result<Expression, ParserError> {
        let tok = tokens.next().ok_or(ParserError::UnexpectedEOF)??;
        let expr = match tok {
            Token::Number(num) => {
                let v = num.parse()?;
                Expression::Number(v)
            }
            Token::Identifier(ident) => Expression::Var(ident),
            Token::Operator(_) => return Err(ParserError::UnexpectedToken(tok)),
        };
        // Look ahead to parse a binary operation if present.
        Ok(match tokens.next() {
            None => expr,
            Some(Ok(Token::Operator(op))) => Expression::Operation(
                Box::new(expr),
                op,
                Box::new(parse_expr(tokens)?),
            ),
            Some(Err(e)) => return Err(e.into()),
            Some(Ok(tok)) => return Err(ParserError::UnexpectedToken(tok)),
        })
    }

    parse_expr(&mut tokens)
}

fn main() -> anyhow::Result<()> {
    let expr = parse("10+foo+20-30")?;
    println!("{expr:?}");
    Ok(())
}

Emniyetsiz (Unsafe) Rust

Bu bölüm yaklaşık 1 saat 5 dakika sürmelidir. İçeriği:

Emniyetsiz (Unsafe) Rust

The Rust language has two parts:

• Safe Rust: memory safe, no undefined behavior possible.
• Unsafe Rust: can trigger undefined behavior if preconditions are violated.

We saw mostly safe Rust in this course, but it's important to know what Unsafe Rust is.

Unsafe code is usually small and isolated, and its correctness should be carefully documented. It is usually wrapped in a safe abstraction layer.

Unsafe Rust gives you access to five new capabilities:

• Dereference raw pointers.
• Access or modify mutable static variables.
• Access union fields.
• Call unsafe functions, including extern functions.
• Implement unsafe traits.

We will briefly cover unsafe capabilities next. For full details, please see Chapter 19.1 in the Rust Book and the Rustonomicon.

Ham Göstericilerinin İçeriği (Dereferencing)

Creating pointers is safe, but dereferencing them requires unsafe:

fn main() {
    let mut s = String::from("careful!");

    let r1 = &raw mut s;
    let r2 = r1 as *const String;

    // SAFETY: r1 and r2 were obtained from references and so are guaranteed to
    // be non-null and properly aligned, the objects underlying the references
    // from which they were obtained are live throughout the whole unsafe
    // block, and they are not accessed either through the references or
    // concurrently through any other pointers.
    unsafe {
        println!("r1 is: {}", *r1);
        *r1 = String::from("uhoh");
        println!("r2 is: {}", *r2);
    }

    // NOT SAFE. DO NOT DO THIS.
    /*
    let r3: &String = unsafe { &*r1 };
    drop(s);
    println!("r3 is: {}", *r3);
    */
}

Değişebilir Statik Değişkenler

It is safe to read an immutable static variable:

static HELLO_WORLD: &str = "Merhaba, dünya!";

fn main() {
    println!("HELLO_WORLD: {HELLO_WORLD}");
}

However, since data races can occur, it is unsafe to read and write mutable static variables:

static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0;

fn add_to_counter(inc: u32) {
    // SAFETY: There are no other threads which could be accessing `COUNTER`.
    unsafe {
        COUNTER += inc;
    }
}

fn main() {
    add_to_counter(42);

    // SAFETY: There are no other threads which could be accessing `COUNTER`.
    unsafe {
        println!("COUNTER: {COUNTER}");
    }
}

Birlikler (Unions)

Unions are like enums, but you need to track the active field yourself:

#[repr(C)]
union MyUnion {
    i: u8,
    b: bool,
}

fn main() {
    let u = MyUnion { i: 42 };
    println!("int: {}", unsafe { u.i });
    println!("bool: {}", unsafe { u.b }); // Undefined behavior!
}

Emniyetsiz Fonksiyonlar

Emniyetsiz (Unsafe) Fonksiyonları Çağırma

A function or method can be marked unsafe if it has extra preconditions you must uphold to avoid undefined behaviour:

extern "C" {
    fn abs(input: i32) -> i32;
}

fn main() {
    let emojis = "🗻∈🌏";

    // SAFETY: The indices are in the correct order, within the bounds of the
    // string slice, and lie on UTF-8 sequence boundaries.
    unsafe {
        println!("emoji: {}", emojis.get_unchecked(0..4));
        println!("emoji: {}", emojis.get_unchecked(4..7));
        println!("emoji: {}", emojis.get_unchecked(7..11));
    }

    println!("char count: {}", count_chars(unsafe { emojis.get_unchecked(0..7) }));

    // SAFETY: `abs` doesn't deal with pointers and doesn't have any safety
    // requirements.
    unsafe {
        println!("Absolute value of -3 according to C: {}", abs(-3));
    }

    // Not upholding the UTF-8 encoding requirement breaks memory safety!
    // println!("emoji: {}", unsafe { emojis.get_unchecked(0..3) });
    // println!("char count: {}", count_chars(unsafe {
    // emojis.get_unchecked(0..3) }));
}

fn count_chars(s: &str) -> usize {
    s.chars().count()
}

Emniyetsiz (Unsafe) Fonksiyonlar Yazma

You can mark your own functions as unsafe if they require particular conditions to avoid undefined behaviour.

/// Swaps the values pointed to by the given pointers.
///
/// # Safety
///
/// The pointers must be valid and properly aligned.
unsafe fn swap(a: *mut u8, b: *mut u8) {
    let temp = *a;
    *a = *b;
    *b = temp;
}

fn main() {
    let mut a = 42;
    let mut b = 66;

    // SAFETY: ...
    unsafe {
        swap(&mut a, &mut b);
    }

    println!("a = {}, b = {}", a, b);
}

Emniyetsiz Özelliklerin (Unsafe Traits) Gerçekleştirilmesi

Like with functions, you can mark a trait as unsafe if the implementation must guarantee particular conditions to avoid undefined behaviour.

For example, the zerocopy crate has an unsafe trait that looks something like this:

use std::{mem, slice};

/// ...
/// # Safety
/// The type must have a defined representation and no padding.
pub unsafe trait IntoBytes {
    fn as_bytes(&self) -> &[u8] {
        let len = mem::size_of_val(self);
        unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts((&raw const self).cast::<u8>(), len) }
    }
}

// SAFETY: `u32` has a defined representation and no padding.
unsafe impl IntoBytes for u32 {}

Emniyetli FFI Sarıcı (Wrapper)

Rust has great support for calling functions through a foreign function interface (FFI). We will use this to build a safe wrapper for the libc functions you would use from C to read the names of files in a directory.

You will want to consult the manual pages:

• opendir(3)
• readdir(3)
• closedir(3)

You will also want to browse the std::ffi module. There you find a number of string types which you need for the exercise:

You will convert between all these types:

• &str to CString: you need to allocate space for a trailing \0 character,
• CString to *const i8: you need a pointer to call C functions,
• *const i8 to &CStr: you need something which can find the trailing \0 character,
• &CStr to &[u8]: a slice of bytes is the universal interface for "some unknown data",
• &[u8] to &OsStr: &OsStr is a step towards OsString, use OsStrExt to create it,
• &OsStr to OsString: you need to clone the data in &OsStr to be able to return it and call readdir again.

The Nomicon also has a very useful chapter about FFI.

Copy the code below to https://play.rust-lang.org/ and fill in the missing functions and methods:

// TODO: uyarlamanız (implementation) bittiğinde bu yorum satırını silin.
#![allow(unused_imports, unused_variables, dead_code)]

mod ffi {
    use std::os::raw::{c_char, c_int};
    #[cfg(not(target_os = "macos"))]
    use std::os::raw::{c_long, c_uchar, c_ulong, c_ushort};

    // Opaque type. See https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/ffi.html.
    #[repr(C)]
    pub struct DIR {
        _data: [u8; 0],
        _marker: core::marker::PhantomData<(*mut u8, core::marker::PhantomPinned)>,
    }

    // Layout according to the Linux man page for readdir(3), where ino_t and
    // off_t are resolved according to the definitions in
    // /usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/{sys/types.h, bits/typesizes.h}.
    #[cfg(not(target_os = "macos"))]
    #[repr(C)]
    pub struct dirent {
        pub d_ino: c_ulong,
        pub d_off: c_long,
        pub d_reclen: c_ushort,
        pub d_type: c_uchar,
        pub d_name: [c_char; 256],
    }

    // Layout according to the macOS man page for dir(5).
    #[cfg(all(target_os = "macos"))]
    #[repr(C)]
    pub struct dirent {
        pub d_fileno: u64,
        pub d_seekoff: u64,
        pub d_reclen: u16,
        pub d_namlen: u16,
        pub d_type: u8,
        pub d_name: [c_char; 1024],
    }

    unsafe extern "C" {
        pub unsafe fn opendir(s: *const c_char) -> *mut DIR;

        #[cfg(not(all(target_os = "macos", target_arch = "x86_64")))]
        pub unsafe fn readdir(s: *mut DIR) -> *const dirent;

        // See https://github.com/rust-lang/libc/issues/414 and the section on
        // _DARWIN_FEATURE_64_BIT_INODE in the macOS man page for stat(2).
        //
        // "Platforms that existed before these updates were available" refers
        // to macOS (as opposed to iOS / wearOS / etc.) on Intel and PowerPC.
        #[cfg(all(target_os = "macos", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
        #[link_name = "readdir$INODE64"]
        pub unsafe fn readdir(s: *mut DIR) -> *const dirent;

        pub unsafe fn closedir(s: *mut DIR) -> c_int;
    }
}

use std::ffi::{CStr, CString, OsStr, OsString};
use std::os::unix::ffi::OsStrExt;

#[derive(Debug)]
struct DirectoryIterator {
    path: CString,
    dir: *mut ffi::DIR,
}

impl DirectoryIterator {
    fn new(path: &str) -> Result<DirectoryIterator, String> {
        // Call opendir and return a Ok value if that worked,
        // otherwise return Err with a message.
        unimplemented!()
    }
}

impl Iterator for DirectoryIterator {
    type Item = OsString;
    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<OsString> {
        // Keep calling readdir until we get a NULL pointer back.
        unimplemented!()
    }
}

impl Drop for DirectoryIterator {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        // Call closedir as needed.
        unimplemented!()
    }
}

fn main() -> Result<(), String> {
    let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(".")?;
    println!("files: {:#?}", iter.collect::<Vec<_>>());
    Ok(())
}

Çözüm

mod ffi {
    use std::os::raw::{c_char, c_int};
    #[cfg(not(target_os = "macos"))]
    use std::os::raw::{c_long, c_uchar, c_ulong, c_ushort};

    // Opaque type. See https://doc.rust-lang.org/nomicon/ffi.html.
    #[repr(C)]
    pub struct DIR {
        _data: [u8; 0],
        _marker: core::marker::PhantomData<(*mut u8, core::marker::PhantomPinned)>,
    }

    // Layout according to the Linux man page for readdir(3), where ino_t and
    // off_t are resolved according to the definitions in
    // /usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/{sys/types.h, bits/typesizes.h}.
    #[cfg(not(target_os = "macos"))]
    #[repr(C)]
    pub struct dirent {
        pub d_ino: c_ulong,
        pub d_off: c_long,
        pub d_reclen: c_ushort,
        pub d_type: c_uchar,
        pub d_name: [c_char; 256],
    }

    // Layout according to the macOS man page for dir(5).
    #[cfg(all(target_os = "macos"))]
    #[repr(C)]
    pub struct dirent {
        pub d_fileno: u64,
        pub d_seekoff: u64,
        pub d_reclen: u16,
        pub d_namlen: u16,
        pub d_type: u8,
        pub d_name: [c_char; 1024],
    }

    unsafe extern "C" {
        pub unsafe fn opendir(s: *const c_char) -> *mut DIR;

        #[cfg(not(all(target_os = "macos", target_arch = "x86_64")))]
        pub unsafe fn readdir(s: *mut DIR) -> *const dirent;

        // See https://github.com/rust-lang/libc/issues/414 and the section on
        // _DARWIN_FEATURE_64_BIT_INODE in the macOS man page for stat(2).
        //
        // "Platforms that existed before these updates were available" refers
        // to macOS (as opposed to iOS / wearOS / etc.) on Intel and PowerPC.
        #[cfg(all(target_os = "macos", target_arch = "x86_64"))]
        #[link_name = "readdir$INODE64"]
        pub unsafe fn readdir(s: *mut DIR) -> *const dirent;

        pub unsafe fn closedir(s: *mut DIR) -> c_int;
    }
}

use std::ffi::{CStr, CString, OsStr, OsString};
use std::os::unix::ffi::OsStrExt;

#[derive(Debug)]
struct DirectoryIterator {
    path: CString,
    dir: *mut ffi::DIR,
}

impl DirectoryIterator {
    fn new(path: &str) -> Result<DirectoryIterator, String> {
        // Call opendir and return a Ok value if that worked,
        // otherwise return Err with a message.
        let path =
            CString::new(path).map_err(|err| format!("Invalid path: {err}"))?;
        // SAFETY: path.as_ptr() cannot be NULL.
        let dir = unsafe { ffi::opendir(path.as_ptr()) };
        if dir.is_null() {
            Err(format!("Could not open {path:?}"))
        } else {
            Ok(DirectoryIterator { path, dir })
        }
    }
}

impl Iterator for DirectoryIterator {
    type Item = OsString;
    fn next(&mut self) -> Option<OsString> {
        // Keep calling readdir until we get a NULL pointer back.
        // SAFETY: self.dir is never NULL.
        let dirent = unsafe { ffi::readdir(self.dir) };
        if dirent.is_null() {
            // We have reached the end of the directory.
            return None;
        }
        // SAFETY: dirent is not NULL and dirent.d_name is NUL
        // terminated.
        let d_name = unsafe { CStr::from_ptr((*dirent).d_name.as_ptr()) };
        let os_str = OsStr::from_bytes(d_name.to_bytes());
        Some(os_str.to_owned())
    }
}

impl Drop for DirectoryIterator {
    fn drop(&mut self) {
        // Call closedir as needed.
        // SAFETY: self.dir is never NULL.
        if unsafe { ffi::closedir(self.dir) } != 0 {
            panic!("Could not close {:?}", self.path);
        }
    }
}

fn main() -> Result<(), String> {
    let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(".")?;
    println!("files: {:#?}", iter.collect::<Vec<_>>());
    Ok(())
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;
    use std::error::Error;

    #[test]
    fn test_nonexisting_directory() {
        let iter = DirectoryIterator::new("no-such-directory");
        assert!(iter.is_err());
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_empty_directory() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
        let tmp = tempfile::TempDir::new()?;
        let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(
            tmp.path().to_str().ok_or("Non UTF-8 character in path")?,
        )?;
        let mut entries = iter.collect::<Vec<_>>();
        entries.sort();
        assert_eq!(entries, &[".", ".."]);
        Ok(())
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_nonempty_directory() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
        let tmp = tempfile::TempDir::new()?;
        std::fs::write(tmp.path().join("foo.txt"), "The Foo Diaries\n")?;
        std::fs::write(tmp.path().join("bar.png"), "<PNG>\n")?;
        std::fs::write(tmp.path().join("crab.rs"), "//! Crab\n")?;
        let iter = DirectoryIterator::new(
            tmp.path().to_str().ok_or("Non UTF-8 character in path")?,
        )?;
        let mut entries = iter.collect::<Vec<_>>();
        entries.sort();
        assert_eq!(entries, &[".", "..", "bar.png", "crab.rs", "foo.txt"]);
        Ok(())
    }
}

Welcome to Rust in Android

Rust is supported for system software on Android. This means that you can write new services, libraries, drivers or even firmware in Rust (or improve existing code as needed).

Kurulum (Setup)

We will be using a Cuttlefish Android Virtual Device to test our code. Make sure you have access to one or create a new one with:

source build/envsetup.sh
lunch aosp_cf_x86_64_phone-trunk_staging-userdebug
acloud create

Please see the Android Developer Codelab for details.

The code on the following pages can be found in the src/android/ directory of the course material. Please git clone the repository to follow along.

İnşa (Build) Kuralları

The Android build system (Soong) supports Rust via a number of modules:

We will look at rust_binary and rust_library next.

Rust Binaries

Let us start with a simple application. At the root of an AOSP checkout, create the following files:

hello_rust/Android.bp:

rust_binary {
    name: "hello_rust",
    crate_name: "hello_rust",
    srcs: ["src/main.rs"],
}

hello_rust/src/main.rs:

//! Rust demo.

/// Prints a greeting to standard output.
fn main() {
    println!("Rust dilinden merhaba!");
}

You can now build, push, and run the binary:

m hello_rust
adb push "$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/hello_rust" /data/local/tmp
adb shell /data/local/tmp/hello_rust

Hello from Rust!

Rust Libraries

You use rust_library to create a new Rust library for Android.

Here we declare a dependency on two libraries:

• libgreeting, which we define below,
• libtextwrap, which is a crate already vendored in external/rust/crates/.

hello_rust/Android.bp:

rust_binary {
    name: "hello_rust_with_dep",
    crate_name: "hello_rust_with_dep",
    srcs: ["src/main.rs"],
    rustlibs: [
        "libgreetings",
        "libtextwrap",
    ],
    prefer_rlib: true, // Need this to avoid dynamic link error.
}

rust_library {
    name: "libgreetings",
    crate_name: "greetings",
    srcs: ["src/lib.rs"],
}

hello_rust/src/main.rs:

//! Rust demo.

use greetings::greeting;
use textwrap::fill;

/// Prints a greeting to standard output.
fn main() {
    println!("{}", fill(&greeting("Bob"), 24));
}

hello_rust/src/lib.rs:

//! Greeting library.

/// Greet `name`.
pub fn greeting(name: &str) -> String {
    format!("Hello {name}, it is very nice to meet you!")
}

You build, push, and run the binary like before:

m hello_rust_with_dep
adb push "$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/hello_rust_with_dep" /data/local/tmp
adb shell /data/local/tmp/hello_rust_with_dep

Hello Bob, it is very
nice to meet you!

AIDL

The Android Interface Definition Language (AIDL) is supported in Rust:

• Rust code can call existing AIDL servers,
• You can create new AIDL servers in Rust.

Doğum Günü Servisi Eğitimi

To illustrate how to use Rust with Binder, we're going to walk through the process of creating a Binder interface. We're then going to both implement the described service and write client code that talks to that service.

AIDL Interfaces

You declare the API of your service using an AIDL interface:

birthday_service/aidl/com/example/birthdayservice/IBirthdayService.aidl:

package com.example.birthdayservice;

/** Birthday service interface. */
interface IBirthdayService {
    /** Generate a Happy Birthday message. */
    String wishHappyBirthday(String name, int years);
}

birthday_service/aidl/Android.bp:

aidl_interface {
    name: "com.example.birthdayservice",
    srcs: ["com/example/birthdayservice/*.aidl"],
    unstable: true,
    backend: {
        rust: { // Rust is not enabled by default
            enabled: true,
        },
    },
}

Generated Service API

Binder generates a trait for each interface definition.

birthday_service/aidl/com/example/birthdayservice/IBirthdayService.aidl:

/** Birthday service interface. */
interface IBirthdayService {
    /** Generate a Happy Birthday message. */
    String wishHappyBirthday(String name, int years);
}

out/soong/.intermediates/.../birthdayservice/IBirthdayService.rs:

trait IBirthdayService {
    fn wishHappyBirthday(&self, name: &str, years: i32) -> binder::Result<String>;
}

Your service will need to implement this trait, and your client will use this trait to talk to the service.

Service Implementation

We can now implement the AIDL service:

birthday_service/src/lib.rs:

//! Implementation of the `IBirthdayService` AIDL interface.
use com_example_birthdayservice::aidl::com::example::birthdayservice::IBirthdayService::IBirthdayService;
use com_example_birthdayservice::binder;

/// The `IBirthdayService` implementation.
pub struct BirthdayService;

impl binder::Interface for BirthdayService {}

impl IBirthdayService for BirthdayService {
    fn wishHappyBirthday(&self, name: &str, years: i32) -> binder::Result<String> {
        Ok(format!("Happy Birthday {name}, congratulations with the {years} years!"))
    }
}

birthday_service/Android.bp:

rust_library {
    name: "libbirthdayservice",
    srcs: ["src/lib.rs"],
    crate_name: "birthdayservice",
    rustlibs: [
        "com.example.birthdayservice-rust",
        "libbinder_rs",
    ],
}

AIDL Server

Finally, we can create a server which exposes the service:

birthday_service/src/server.rs:

//! Birthday service.
use birthdayservice::BirthdayService;
use com_example_birthdayservice::aidl::com::example::birthdayservice::IBirthdayService::BnBirthdayService;
use com_example_birthdayservice::binder;

const SERVICE_IDENTIFIER: &str = "birthdayservice";

/// Entry point for birthday service.
fn main() {
    let birthday_service = BirthdayService;
    let birthday_service_binder = BnBirthdayService::new_binder(
        birthday_service,
        binder::BinderFeatures::default(),
    );
    binder::add_service(SERVICE_IDENTIFIER, birthday_service_binder.as_binder())
        .expect("Failed to register service");
    binder::ProcessState::join_thread_pool();
}

birthday_service/Android.bp:

rust_binary {
    name: "birthday_server",
    crate_name: "birthday_server",
    srcs: ["src/server.rs"],
    rustlibs: [
        "com.example.birthdayservice-rust",
        "libbinder_rs",
        "libbirthdayservice",
    ],
    prefer_rlib: true, // To avoid dynamic link error.
}

Dağıtmak (Deploy)

We can now build, push, and start the service:

m birthday_server
adb push "$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/birthday_server" /data/local/tmp
adb root
adb shell /data/local/tmp/birthday_server

In another terminal, check that the service runs:

adb shell service check birthdayservice

Service birthdayservice: found

You can also call the service with service call:

adb shell service call birthdayservice 1 s16 Bob i32 24

Result: Parcel(
  0x00000000: 00000000 00000036 00610048 00700070 '....6...H.a.p.p.'
  0x00000010: 00200079 00690042 00740072 00640068 'y. .B.i.r.t.h.d.'
  0x00000020: 00790061 00420020 0062006f 0020002c 'a.y. .B.o.b.,. .'
  0x00000030: 006f0063 0067006e 00610072 00750074 'c.o.n.g.r.a.t.u.'
  0x00000040: 0061006c 00690074 006e006f 00200073 'l.a.t.i.o.n.s. .'
  0x00000050: 00690077 00680074 00740020 00650068 'w.i.t.h. .t.h.e.'
  0x00000060: 00320020 00200034 00650079 00720061 ' .2.4. .y.e.a.r.'
  0x00000070: 00210073 00000000                   's.!.....        ')

AIDL Client

Finally, we can create a Rust client for our new service.

birthday_service/src/client.rs:

use com_example_birthdayservice::aidl::com::example::birthdayservice::IBirthdayService::IBirthdayService;
use com_example_birthdayservice::binder;

const SERVICE_IDENTIFIER: &str = "birthdayservice";

/// Call the birthday service.
fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
    let name = std::env::args().nth(1).unwrap_or_else(|| String::from("Bob"));
    let years = std::env::args()
        .nth(2)
        .and_then(|arg| arg.parse::<i32>().ok())
        .unwrap_or(42);

    binder::ProcessState::start_thread_pool();
    let service = binder::get_interface::<dyn IBirthdayService>(SERVICE_IDENTIFIER)
        .map_err(|_| "Failed to connect to BirthdayService")?;

    // Call the service.
    let msg = service.wishHappyBirthday(&name, years)?;
    println!("{msg}");
}

birthday_service/Android.bp:

rust_binary {
    name: "birthday_client",
    crate_name: "birthday_client",
    srcs: ["src/client.rs"],
    rustlibs: [
        "com.example.birthdayservice-rust",
        "libbinder_rs",
    ],
    prefer_rlib: true, // To avoid dynamic link error.
}

Notice that the client does not depend on libbirthdayservice.

Build, push, and run the client on your device:

m birthday_client
adb push "$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/birthday_client" /data/local/tmp
adb shell /data/local/tmp/birthday_client Charlie 60

Happy Birthday Charlie, congratulations with the 60 years!

API'yi Değiştirme

Let us extend the API with more functionality: we want to let clients specify a list of lines for the birthday card:

package com.example.birthdayservice;

/** Birthday service interface. */
interface IBirthdayService {
    /** Generate a Happy Birthday message. */
    String wishHappyBirthday(String name, int years, in String[] text);
}

This results in an updated trait definition for IBirthdayService:

trait IBirthdayService {
    fn wishHappyBirthday(
        &self,
        name: &str,
        years: i32,
        text: &[String],
    ) -> binder::Result<String>;
}

Updating Client and Service

Update the client and server code to account for the new API.

birthday_service/src/lib.rs:

impl IBirthdayService for BirthdayService {
    fn wishHappyBirthday(
        &self,
        name: &str,
        years: i32,
        text: &[String],
    ) -> binder::Result<String> {
        let mut msg = format!(
            "Happy Birthday {name}, congratulations with the {years} years!",
        );

        for line in text {
            msg.push('\n');
            msg.push_str(line);
        }

        Ok(msg)
    }
}

birthday_service/src/client.rs:

let msg = service.wishHappyBirthday(
    &name,
    years,
    &[
        String::from("Habby birfday to yuuuuu"),
        String::from("And also: many more"),
    ],
)?;

Working With AIDL Types

AIDL types translate into the appropriate idiomatic Rust type:

• Primitive types map (mostly) to idiomatic Rust types.
• Collection types like slices, Vecs and string types are supported.
• References to AIDL objects and file handles can be sent between clients and services.
• File handles and parcelables are fully supported.

İlkel (Primitive) Türler

Primitive types map (mostly) idiomatically:

Dizi Türleri

The array types (T[], byte[], and List<T>) get translated to the appropriate Rust array type depending on how they are used in the function signature:

Nesnelerin Gönderilmesi

AIDL objects can be sent either as a concrete AIDL type or as the type-erased IBinder interface:

birthday_service/aidl/com/example/birthdayservice/IBirthdayInfoProvider.aidl:

package com.example.birthdayservice;

interface IBirthdayInfoProvider {
    String name();
    int years();
}

birthday_service/aidl/com/example/birthdayservice/IBirthdayService.aidl:

import com.example.birthdayservice.IBirthdayInfoProvider;

interface IBirthdayService {
    /** The same thing, but using a binder object. */
    String wishWithProvider(IBirthdayInfoProvider provider);

    /** The same thing, but using `IBinder`. */
    String wishWithErasedProvider(IBinder provider);
}

birthday_service/src/client.rs:

/// Rust struct implementing the `IBirthdayInfoProvider` interface.
struct InfoProvider {
    name: String,
    age: u8,
}

impl binder::Interface for InfoProvider {}

impl IBirthdayInfoProvider for InfoProvider {
    fn name(&self) -> binder::Result<String> {
        Ok(self.name.clone())
    }

    fn years(&self) -> binder::Result<i32> {
        Ok(self.age as i32)
    }
}

fn main() {
    binder::ProcessState::start_thread_pool();
    let service = connect().expect("Failed to connect to BirthdayService");

    // Create a binder object for the `IBirthdayInfoProvider` interface.
    let provider = BnBirthdayInfoProvider::new_binder(
        InfoProvider { name: name.clone(), age: years as u8 },
        BinderFeatures::default(),
    );

    // Send the binder object to the service.
    service.wishWithProvider(&provider)?;

    // Perform the same operation but passing the provider as an `SpIBinder`.
    service.wishWithErasedProvider(&provider.as_binder())?;
}

Parsellenebilir Gönderme

Binder for Rust supports sending parcelables directly:

birthday_service/aidl/com/example/birthdayservice/BirthdayInfo.aidl:

package com.example.birthdayservice;

parcelable BirthdayInfo {
    String name;
    int years;
}

birthday_service/aidl/com/example/birthdayservice/IBirthdayService.aidl:

import com.example.birthdayservice.BirthdayInfo;

interface IBirthdayService {
    /** The same thing, but with a parcelable. */
    String wishWithInfo(in BirthdayInfo info);
}

birthday_service/src/client.rs:

fn main() {
    binder::ProcessState::start_thread_pool();
    let service = connect().expect("Failed to connect to BirthdayService");

    let info = BirthdayInfo { name: "Alice".into(), years: 123 };
    service.wishWithInfo(&info)?;
}

Dosyaların Gönderilmesi

Files can be sent between Binder clients/servers using the ParcelFileDescriptor type:

birthday_service/aidl/com/example/birthdayservice/IBirthdayService.aidl:

interface IBirthdayService {
    /** The same thing, but loads info from a file. */
    String wishFromFile(in ParcelFileDescriptor infoFile);
}

birthday_service/src/client.rs:

fn main() {
    binder::ProcessState::start_thread_pool();
    let service = connect().expect("Failed to connect to BirthdayService");

    // Open a file and put the birthday info in it.
    let mut file = File::create("/data/local/tmp/birthday.info").unwrap();
    writeln!(file, "{name}")?;
    writeln!(file, "{years}")?;

    // Create a `ParcelFileDescriptor` from the file and send it.
    let file = ParcelFileDescriptor::new(file);
    service.wishFromFile(&file)?;
}

birthday_service/src/lib.rs:

impl IBirthdayService for BirthdayService {
    fn wishFromFile(
        &self,
        info_file: &ParcelFileDescriptor,
    ) -> binder::Result<String> {
        // Convert the file descriptor to a `File`. `ParcelFileDescriptor` wraps
        // an `OwnedFd`, which can be cloned and then used to create a `File`
        // object.
        let mut info_file = info_file
            .as_ref()
            .try_clone()
            .map(File::from)
            .expect("Invalid file handle");

        let mut contents = String::new();
        info_file.read_to_string(&mut contents).unwrap();

        let mut lines = contents.lines();
        let name = lines.next().unwrap();
        let years: i32 = lines.next().unwrap().parse().unwrap();

        Ok(format!("Happy Birthday {name}, congratulations with the {years} years!"))
    }
}

Android'de Test Etme

Building on Testing, we will now look at how unit tests work in AOSP. Use the rust_test module for your unit tests:

testing/Android.bp:

rust_library {
    name: "libleftpad",
    crate_name: "leftpad",
    srcs: ["src/lib.rs"],
}

rust_test {
    name: "libleftpad_test",
    crate_name: "leftpad_test",
    srcs: ["src/lib.rs"],
    host_supported: true,
    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
}

testing/src/lib.rs:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
//! Left-padding library.

/// Left-pad `s` to `width`.
pub fn leftpad(s: &str, width: usize) -> String {
    format!("{s:>width$}")
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn short_string() {
        assert_eq!(leftpad("foo", 5), "  foo");
    }

    #[test]
    fn long_string() {
        assert_eq!(leftpad("foobar", 6), "foobar");
    }
}
}

You can now run the test with

atest --host libleftpad_test

The output looks like this:

INFO: Elapsed time: 2.666s, Critical Path: 2.40s
INFO: 3 processes: 2 internal, 1 linux-sandbox.
INFO: Build completed successfully, 3 total actions
//comprehensive-rust-android/testing:libleftpad_test_host            PASSED in 2.3s
    PASSED  libleftpad_test.tests::long_string (0.0s)
    PASSED  libleftpad_test.tests::short_string (0.0s)
Test cases: finished with 2 passing and 0 failing out of 2 test cases

Notice how you only mention the root of the library crate. Tests are found recursively in nested modules.

GoogleTest

The GoogleTest crate allows for flexible test assertions using matchers:

use googletest::prelude::*;

#[googletest::test]
fn test_elements_are() {
    let value = vec!["foo", "bar", "baz"];
    expect_that!(value, elements_are!(eq(&"foo"), lt(&"xyz"), starts_with("b")));
}

If we change the last element to "!", the test fails with a structured error message pin-pointing the error:

---- test_elements_are stdout ----
Value of: value
Expected: has elements:
  0. is equal to "foo"
  1. is less than "xyz"
  2. starts with prefix "!"
Actual: ["foo", "bar", "baz"],
  where element #2 is "baz", which does not start with "!"
  at src/testing/googletest.rs:6:5
Error: See failure output above

#[test]
fn test_multiline_string_diff() {
    let haiku = "Memory safety found,\n\
                 Rust's strong typing guides the way,\n\
                 Secure code you'll write.";
    assert_that!(
        haiku,
        eq("Memory safety found,\n\
            Rust's silly humor guides the way,\n\
            Secure code you'll write.")
    );
}

    Value of: haiku
Expected: is equal to "Memory safety found,\nRust's silly humor guides the way,\nSecure code you'll write."
Actual: "Memory safety found,\nRust's strong typing guides the way,\nSecure code you'll write.",
  which isn't equal to "Memory safety found,\nRust's silly humor guides the way,\nSecure code you'll write."
Difference(-actual / +expected):
 Memory safety found,
-Rust's strong typing guides the way,
+Rust's silly humor guides the way,
 Secure code you'll write.
  at src/testing/googletest.rs:17:5

Taklit Etme (Mocking)

For mocking, Mockall is a widely used library. You need to refactor your code to use traits, which you can then quickly mock:

use std::time::Duration;

#[mockall::automock]
pub trait Pet {
    fn is_hungry(&self, since_last_meal: Duration) -> bool;
}

#[test]
fn test_robot_dog() {
    let mut mock_dog = MockPet::new();
    mock_dog.expect_is_hungry().return_const(true);
    assert_eq!(mock_dog.is_hungry(Duration::from_secs(10)), true);
}

#[test]
fn test_robot_cat() {
    let mut mock_cat = MockPet::new();
    mock_cat
        .expect_is_hungry()
        .with(mockall::predicate::gt(Duration::from_secs(3 * 3600)))
        .return_const(true);
    mock_cat.expect_is_hungry().return_const(false);
    assert_eq!(mock_cat.is_hungry(Duration::from_secs(1 * 3600)), false);
    assert_eq!(mock_cat.is_hungry(Duration::from_secs(5 * 3600)), true);
}

Kayıt Tutma (Logging)

You should use the log crate to automatically log to logcat (on-device) or stdout (on-host):

hello_rust_logs/Android.bp:

rust_binary {
    name: "hello_rust_logs",
    crate_name: "hello_rust_logs",
    srcs: ["src/main.rs"],
    rustlibs: [
        "liblog_rust",
        "liblogger",
    ],
    host_supported: true,
}

hello_rust_logs/src/main.rs:

//! Rust logging demo.

use log::{debug, error, info};

/// Logs a greeting.
fn main() {
    logger::init(
        logger::Config::default()
            .with_tag_on_device("rust")
            .with_max_level(log::LevelFilter::Trace),
    );
    debug!("Starting program.");
    info!("Things are going fine.");
    error!("Something went wrong!");
}

Build, push, and run the binary on your device:

m hello_rust_logs
adb push "$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/hello_rust_logs" /data/local/tmp
adb shell /data/local/tmp/hello_rust_logs

The logs show up in adb logcat:

adb logcat -s rust

09-08 08:38:32.454  2420  2420 D rust: hello_rust_logs: Starting program.
09-08 08:38:32.454  2420  2420 I rust: hello_rust_logs: Things are going fine.
09-08 08:38:32.454  2420  2420 E rust: hello_rust_logs: Something went wrong!

Birlikte Çalışabilirlik

Rust has excellent support for interoperability with other languages. This means that you can:

• Call Rust functions from other languages.
• Call functions written in other languages from Rust.

When you call functions in a foreign language we say that you're using a foreign function interface, also known as FFI.

Interoperability with C

Rust has full support for linking object files with a C calling convention. Similarly, you can export Rust functions and call them from C.

You can do it by hand if you want:

unsafe extern "C" {
    safe fn abs(x: i32) -> i32;
}

fn main() {
    let x = -42;
    let abs_x = abs(x);
    println!("{x}, {abs_x}");
}

We already saw this in the Safe FFI Wrapper exercise.

This assumes full knowledge of the target platform. Not recommended for production.

We will look at better options next.

Using Bindgen

The bindgen tool can auto-generate bindings from a C header file.

First create a small C library:

interoperability/bindgen/libbirthday.h:

typedef struct card {
  const char* name;
  int years;
} card;

void print_card(const card* card);

interoperability/bindgen/libbirthday.c:

#include <stdio.h>
#include "libbirthday.h"

void print_card(const card* card) {
  printf("+--------------\n");
  printf("| Happy Birthday %s!\n", card->name);
  printf("| Congratulations with the %i years!\n", card->years);
  printf("+--------------\n");
}

Add this to your Android.bp file:

interoperability/bindgen/Android.bp:

cc_library {
    name: "libbirthday",
    srcs: ["libbirthday.c"],
}

Create a wrapper header file for the library (not strictly needed in this example):

interoperability/bindgen/libbirthday_wrapper.h:

#include "libbirthday.h"

You can now auto-generate the bindings:

interoperability/bindgen/Android.bp:

rust_bindgen {
    name: "libbirthday_bindgen",
    crate_name: "birthday_bindgen",
    wrapper_src: "libbirthday_wrapper.h",
    source_stem: "bindings",
    static_libs: ["libbirthday"],
}

Finally, we can use the bindings in our Rust program:

interoperability/bindgen/Android.bp:

rust_binary {
    name: "print_birthday_card",
    srcs: ["main.rs"],
    rustlibs: ["libbirthday_bindgen"],
}

interoperability/bindgen/main.rs:

//! Bindgen demo.

use birthday_bindgen::{card, print_card};

fn main() {
    let name = std::ffi::CString::new("Peter").unwrap();
    let card = card { name: name.as_ptr(), years: 42 };
    // SAFETY: The pointer we pass is valid because it came from a Rust
    // reference, and the `name` it contains refers to `name` above which also
    // remains valid. `print_card` doesn't store either pointer to use later
    // after it returns.
    unsafe {
        print_card(&card as *const card);
    }
}

Build, push, and run the binary on your device:

m print_birthday_card
adb push "$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/print_birthday_card" /data/local/tmp
adb shell /data/local/tmp/print_birthday_card

Finally, we can run auto-generated tests to ensure the bindings work:

interoperability/bindgen/Android.bp:

rust_test {
    name: "libbirthday_bindgen_test",
    srcs: [":libbirthday_bindgen"],
    crate_name: "libbirthday_bindgen_test",
    test_suites: ["general-tests"],
    auto_gen_config: true,
    clippy_lints: "none", // Generated file, skip linting
    lints: "none",
}

atest libbirthday_bindgen_test

Calling Rust

Exporting Rust functions and types to C is easy:

interoperability/rust/libanalyze/analyze.rs

//! Rust FFI demo.
#![deny(improper_ctypes_definitions)]

use std::os::raw::c_int;

/// Analyze the numbers.
// SAFETY: There is no other global function of this name.
#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
pub extern "C" fn analyze_numbers(x: c_int, y: c_int) {
    if x < y {
        println!("x ({x}) is smallest!");
    } else {
        println!("y ({y}) is probably larger than x ({x})");
    }
}

interoperability/rust/libanalyze/analyze.h

#ifndef ANALYSE_H
#define ANALYSE_H

void analyze_numbers(int x, int y);

#endif

interoperability/rust/libanalyze/Android.bp

rust_ffi {
    name: "libanalyze_ffi",
    crate_name: "analyze_ffi",
    srcs: ["analyze.rs"],
    include_dirs: ["."],
}

We can now call this from a C binary:

interoperability/rust/analyze/main.c

#include "analyze.h"

int main() {
  analyze_numbers(10, 20);
  analyze_numbers(123, 123);
  return 0;
}

interoperability/rust/analyze/Android.bp

cc_binary {
    name: "analyze_numbers",
    srcs: ["main.c"],
    static_libs: ["libanalyze_ffi"],
}

Build, push, and run the binary on your device:

m analyze_numbers
adb push "$ANDROID_PRODUCT_OUT/system/bin/analyze_numbers" /data/local/tmp
adb shell /data/local/tmp/analyze_numbers

C++ ile

The CXX crate makes it possible to do safe interoperability between Rust and C++.

The overall approach looks like this:

Köprü Modülü

CXX relies on a description of the function signatures that will be exposed from each language to the other. You provide this description using extern blocks in a Rust module annotated with the #[cxx::bridge] attribute macro.

#[allow(unsafe_op_in_unsafe_fn)]
#[cxx::bridge(namespace = "org::blobstore")]
mod ffi {
    // Shared structs with fields visible to both languages.
    struct BlobMetadata {
        size: usize,
        tags: Vec<String>,
    }

    // Rust types and signatures exposed to C++.
    extern "Rust" {
        type MultiBuf;

        fn next_chunk(buf: &mut MultiBuf) -> &[u8];
    }

    // C++ types and signatures exposed to Rust.
    unsafe extern "C++" {
        include!("include/blobstore.h");

        type BlobstoreClient;

        fn new_blobstore_client() -> UniquePtr<BlobstoreClient>;
        fn put(self: Pin<&mut BlobstoreClient>, parts: &mut MultiBuf) -> u64;
        fn tag(self: Pin<&mut BlobstoreClient>, blobid: u64, tag: &str);
        fn metadata(&self, blobid: u64) -> BlobMetadata;
    }
}

Rust Bridge Declarations

#[cxx::bridge]
mod ffi {
    extern "Rust" {
        type MyType; // Opaque type
        fn foo(&self); // Method on `MyType`
        fn bar() -> Box<MyType>; // Free function
    }
}

struct MyType(i32);

impl MyType {
    fn foo(&self) {
        println!("{}", self.0);
    }
}

fn bar() -> Box<MyType> {
    Box::new(MyType(123))
}

Oluşturulan (Generated) C++

#[cxx::bridge]
mod ffi {
    // Rust types and signatures exposed to C++.
    extern "Rust" {
        type MultiBuf;

        fn next_chunk(buf: &mut MultiBuf) -> &[u8];
    }
}

Results in (roughly) the following C++:

struct MultiBuf final : public ::rust::Opaque {
  ~MultiBuf() = delete;

private:
  friend ::rust::layout;
  struct layout {
    static ::std::size_t size() noexcept;
    static ::std::size_t align() noexcept;
  };
};

::rust::Slice<::std::uint8_t const> next_chunk(::org::blobstore::MultiBuf &buf) noexcept;

C++ Bridge Declarations

#[cxx::bridge]
mod ffi {
    // C++ types and signatures exposed to Rust.
    unsafe extern "C++" {
        include!("include/blobstore.h");

        type BlobstoreClient;

        fn new_blobstore_client() -> UniquePtr<BlobstoreClient>;
        fn put(self: Pin<&mut BlobstoreClient>, parts: &mut MultiBuf) -> u64;
        fn tag(self: Pin<&mut BlobstoreClient>, blobid: u64, tag: &str);
        fn metadata(&self, blobid: u64) -> BlobMetadata;
    }
}

Results in (roughly) the following Rust:

#[repr(C)]
pub struct BlobstoreClient {
    _private: ::cxx::private::Opaque,
}

pub fn new_blobstore_client() -> ::cxx::UniquePtr<BlobstoreClient> {
    extern "C" {
        #[link_name = "org$blobstore$cxxbridge1$new_blobstore_client"]
        fn __new_blobstore_client() -> *mut BlobstoreClient;
    }
    unsafe { ::cxx::UniquePtr::from_raw(__new_blobstore_client()) }
}

impl BlobstoreClient {
    pub fn put(&self, parts: &mut MultiBuf) -> u64 {
        extern "C" {
            #[link_name = "org$blobstore$cxxbridge1$BlobstoreClient$put"]
            fn __put(
                _: &BlobstoreClient,
                parts: *mut ::cxx::core::ffi::c_void,
            ) -> u64;
        }
        unsafe {
            __put(self, parts as *mut MultiBuf as *mut ::cxx::core::ffi::c_void)
        }
    }
}

// ...

Paylaşılan (Shared) Türler

#[cxx::bridge]
mod ffi {
    #[derive(Clone, Debug, Hash)]
    struct PlayingCard {
        suit: Suit,
        value: u8,  // A=1, J=11, Q=12, K=13
    }

    enum Suit {
        Clubs,
        Diamonds,
        Hearts,
        Spades,
    }
}

Paylaşılan (Shared) Enum'lar

#[cxx::bridge]
mod ffi {
    enum Suit {
        Clubs,
        Diamonds,
        Hearts,
        Spades,
    }
}

Oluşturulan (Generated) Rust:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
#[repr(transparent)]
pub struct Suit {
    pub repr: u8,
}

#[allow(non_upper_case_globals)]
impl Suit {
    pub const Clubs: Self = Suit { repr: 0 };
    pub const Diamonds: Self = Suit { repr: 1 };
    pub const Hearts: Self = Suit { repr: 2 };
    pub const Spades: Self = Suit { repr: 3 };
}
}

Generated C++:

enum class Suit : uint8_t {
  Clubs = 0,
  Diamonds = 1,
  Hearts = 2,
  Spades = 3,
};

Rust Hata İşleme

#[cxx::bridge]
mod ffi {
    extern "Rust" {
        fn fallible(depth: usize) -> Result<String>;
    }
}

fn fallible(depth: usize) -> anyhow::Result<String> {
    if depth == 0 {
        return Err(anyhow::Error::msg("fallible1 requires depth > 0"));
    }

    Ok("Success!".into())
}

C++ Hata İşleme

#[cxx::bridge]
mod ffi {
    unsafe extern "C++" {
        include!("example/include/example.h");
        fn fallible(depth: usize) -> Result<String>;
    }
}

fn main() {
    if let Err(err) = ffi::fallible(99) {
        eprintln!("Error: {}", err);
        process::exit(1);
    }
}

Ek Türler

Android'de İnşa Etme (Build)

Create a cc_library_static to build the C++ library, including the CXX generated header and source file.

cc_library_static {
    name: "libcxx_test_cpp",
    srcs: ["cxx_test.cpp"],
    generated_headers: [
        "cxx-bridge-header",
        "libcxx_test_bridge_header"
    ],
    generated_sources: ["libcxx_test_bridge_code"],
}

Android'de İnşa Etme (Build)

Create two genrules: One to generate the CXX header, and one to generate the CXX source file. These are then used as inputs to the cc_library_static.

// Generate a C++ header containing the C++ bindings
// to the Rust exported functions in lib.rs.
genrule {
    name: "libcxx_test_bridge_header",
    tools: ["cxxbridge"],
    cmd: "$(location cxxbridge) $(in) --header > $(out)",
    srcs: ["lib.rs"],
    out: ["lib.rs.h"],
}

// Generate the C++ code that Rust calls into.
genrule {
    name: "libcxx_test_bridge_code",
    tools: ["cxxbridge"],
    cmd: "$(location cxxbridge) $(in) > $(out)",
    srcs: ["lib.rs"],
    out: ["lib.rs.cc"],
}

Android'de İnşa Etme (Build)

Create a rust_binary that depends on libcxx and your cc_library_static.

rust_binary {
    name: "cxx_test",
    srcs: ["lib.rs"],
    rustlibs: ["libcxx"],
    static_libs: ["libcxx_test_cpp"],
}

Interoperability with Java

Java can load shared objects via Java Native Interface (JNI). The jni crate allows you to create a compatible library.

First, we create a Rust function to export to Java:

interoperability/java/src/lib.rs:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
//! Rust <-> Java FFI demo.

use jni::objects::{JClass, JString};
use jni::sys::jstring;
use jni::JNIEnv;

/// HelloWorld::hello method implementation.
// SAFETY: There is no other global function of this name.
#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
pub extern "system" fn Java_HelloWorld_hello(
    mut env: JNIEnv,
    _class: JClass,
    name: JString,
) -> jstring {
    let input: String = env.get_string(&name).unwrap().into();
    let greeting = format!("Merhaba, {input}!");
    let output = env.new_string(greeting).unwrap();
    output.into_raw()
}
}

interoperability/java/Android.bp:

rust_ffi_shared {
    name: "libhello_jni",
    crate_name: "hello_jni",
    srcs: ["src/lib.rs"],
    rustlibs: ["libjni"],
}

We then call this function from Java:

interoperability/java/HelloWorld.java:

class HelloWorld {
    private static native String hello(String name);

    static {
        System.loadLibrary("hello_jni");
    }

    public static void main(String[] args) {
        String output = HelloWorld.hello("Alice");
        System.out.println(output);
    }
}

interoperability/java/Android.bp:

java_binary {
    name: "helloworld_jni",
    srcs: ["HelloWorld.java"],
    main_class: "HelloWorld",
    required: ["libhello_jni"],
}

Finally, you can build, sync, and run the binary:

m helloworld_jni
adb sync  # requires adb root && adb remount
adb shell /system/bin/helloworld_jni

Chromium'daki Rust'a Hoş Geldiniz

Rust is supported for third-party libraries in Chromium, with first-party glue code to connect between Rust and existing Chromium C++ code.

Today, we'll call into Rust to do something silly with strings. If you've got a corner of the code where you're displaying a UTF8 string to the user, feel free to follow this recipe in your part of the codebase instead of the exact part we talk about.

Kurulum (Setup)

Make sure you can build and run Chromium. Any platform and set of build flags is OK, so long as your code is relatively recent (commit position 1223636 onwards, corresponding to November 2023):

gn gen out/Debug
autoninja -C out/Debug chrome
out/Debug/chrome # or on Mac, out/Debug/Chromium.app/Contents/MacOS/Chromium

(A component, debug build is recommended for quickest iteration time. This is the default!)

See How to build Chromium if you aren't already at that point. Be warned: setting up to build Chromium takes time.

It's also recommended that you have Visual Studio code installed.

Alıştırmalar hakkında

This part of the course has a series of exercises which build on each other. We'll be doing them spread throughout the course instead of just at the end. If you don't have time to complete a certain part, don't worry: you can catch up in the next slot.

Chromium ve Cargo Ekosistemlerinin Karşılaştırılması

The Rust community typically uses cargo and libraries from crates.io. Chromium is built using gn and ninja and a curated set of dependencies.

When writing code in Rust, your choices are:

• Use gn and ninja with the help of the templates from //build/rust/*.gni (e.g. rust_static_library that we'll meet later). This uses Chromium's audited toolchain and crates.
• Use cargo, but restrict yourself to Chromium's audited toolchain and crates
• Use cargo, trusting a toolchain and/or crates downloaded from the internet

From here on we'll be focusing on gn and ninja, because this is how Rust code can be built into the Chromium browser. At the same time, Cargo is an important part of the Rust ecosystem and you should keep it in your toolbox.

Küçük bir alıştırma

Split into small groups and:

• Brainstorm scenarios where cargo may offer an advantage and assess the risk profile of these scenarios.
• Discuss which tools, libraries, and groups of people need to be trusted when using gn and ninja, offline cargo, etc.

Chromium Rust policy

Chromium does not yet allow first-party Rust except in rare cases as approved by Chromium's Area Tech Leads.

Chromium's policy on third party libraries is outlined here - Rust is allowed for third party libraries under various circumstances, including if they're the best option for performance or for security.

Very few Rust libraries directly expose a C/C++ API, so that means that nearly all such libraries will require a small amount of first-party glue code.

First-party Rust glue code for a particular third-party crate should normally be kept in third_party/rust/<crate>/<version>/wrapper.

Because of this, today's course will be heavily focused on:

• Bringing in third-party Rust libraries ("crates")
• Writing glue code to be able to use those crates from Chromium C++.

If this policy changes over time, the course will evolve to keep up.

İnşa (Build) Kuralları

Rust code is usually built using cargo. Chromium builds with gn and ninja for efficiency --- its static rules allow maximum parallelism. Rust is no exception.

Adding Rust code to Chromium

In some existing Chromium BUILD.gn file, declare a rust_static_library:

import("//build/rust/rust_static_library.gni")

rust_static_library("my_rust_lib") {
  crate_root = "lib.rs"
  sources = [ "lib.rs" ]
}

You can also add deps on other Rust targets. Later we'll use this to depend upon third party code.

Including unsafe Rust Code

Unsafe Rust code is forbidden in rust_static_library by default --- it won't compile. If you need unsafe Rust code, add allow_unsafe = true to the gn target. (Later in the course we'll see circumstances where this is necessary.)

import("//build/rust/rust_static_library.gni")

rust_static_library("my_rust_lib") {
  crate_root = "lib.rs"
  sources = [
    "lib.rs",
    "hippopotamus.rs"
  ]
  allow_unsafe = true
}

Chromium C++'dan Rust Koduna Bağımlılık

Simply add the above target to the deps of some Chromium C++ target.

import("//build/rust/rust_static_library.gni")

rust_static_library("my_rust_lib") {
  crate_root = "lib.rs"
  sources = [ "lib.rs" ]
}

# or source_set, static_library etc.
component("preexisting_cpp") {
  deps = [ ":my_rust_lib" ]
}

Visual Studio Code

Types are elided in Rust code, which makes a good IDE even more useful than for C++. Visual Studio code works well for Rust in Chromium. To use it,

• Ensure your VSCode has the rust-analyzer extension, not earlier forms of Rust support
• gn gen out/Debug --export-rust-project (or equivalent for your output directory)
• ln -s out/Debug/rust-project.json rust-project.json

İnşa (build) kuralları alıştırması

In your Chromium build, add a new Rust target to //ui/base/BUILD.gn containing:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// SAFETY: There is no other global function of this name.
#[unsafe(no_mangle)]
pub extern "C" fn hello_from_rust() {
    println!("Rust dilinden merhaba!")
}
}

Important: note that no_mangle here is considered a type of unsafety by the Rust compiler, so you'll need to allow unsafe code in your gn target.

Add this new Rust target as a dependency of //ui/base:base. Declare this function at the top of ui/base/resource/resource_bundle.cc (later, we'll see how this can be automated by bindings generation tools):

extern "C" void hello_from_rust();

Call this function from somewhere in ui/base/resource/resource_bundle.cc - we suggest the top of ResourceBundle::MaybeMangleLocalizedString. Build and run Chromium, and ensure that "Hello from Rust!" is printed lots of times.

If you use VSCode, now set up Rust to work well in VSCode. It will be useful in subsequent exercises. If you've succeeded, you will be able to use right-click "Go to definition" on println!.

Where to find help

• The options available to the rust_static_library gn template
• Information about #[unsafe(no_mangle)]
• Information about extern "C"
• Information about gn's --export-rust-project switch
• How to install rust-analyzer in VSCode

Test Etme

Rust community typically authors unit tests in a module placed in the same source file as the code being tested. This was covered earlier in the course and looks like this:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    #[test]
    fn my_test() {
        todo!()
    }
}
}

In Chromium we place unit tests in a separate source file and we continue to follow this practice for Rust --- this makes tests consistently discoverable and helps to avoid rebuilding .rs files a second time (in the test configuration).

This results in the following options for testing Rust code in Chromium:

• Native Rust tests (i.e. #[test]). Discouraged outside of //third_party/rust.
• gtest tests authored in C++ and exercising Rust via FFI calls. Sufficient when Rust code is just a thin FFI layer and the existing unit tests provide sufficient coverage for the feature.
• gtest tests authored in Rust and using the crate under test through its public API (using pub mod for_testing { ... } if needed). This is the subject of the next few slides.

rust_gtest_interop Kütüphanesi

The rust_gtest_interop library provides a way to:

• Use a Rust function as a gtest testcase (using the #[gtest(...)] attribute)
• Use expect_eq! and similar macros (similar to assert_eq! but not panicking and not terminating the test when the assertion fails).

Örnek:

use rust_gtest_interop::prelude::*;

#[gtest(MyRustTestSuite, MyAdditionTest)]
fn test_addition() {
    expect_eq!(2 + 2, 4);
}

Rust Testleri için GN Kuralları

The simplest way to build Rust gtest tests is to add them to an existing test binary that already contains tests authored in C++. For example:

test("ui_base_unittests") {
  ...
  sources += [ "my_rust_lib_unittest.rs" ]
  deps += [ ":my_rust_lib" ]
}

Authoring Rust tests in a separate static_library also works, but requires manually declaring the dependency on the support libraries:

rust_static_library("my_rust_lib_unittests") {
  testonly = true
  is_gtest_unittests = true
  crate_root = "my_rust_lib_unittest.rs"
  sources = [ "my_rust_lib_unittest.rs" ]
  deps = [
    ":my_rust_lib",
    "//testing/rust_gtest_interop",
  ]
}

test("ui_base_unittests") {
  ...
  deps += [ ":my_rust_lib_unittests" ]
}

chromium::import! Makrosu

After adding :my_rust_lib to GN deps, we still need to learn how to import and use my_rust_lib from my_rust_lib_unittest.rs. We haven't provided an explicit crate_name for my_rust_lib so its crate name is computed based on the full target path and name. Fortunately we can avoid working with such an unwieldy name by using the chromium::import! macro from the automatically-imported chromium crate:

chromium::import! {
    "//ui/base:my_rust_lib";
}

use my_rust_lib::my_function_under_test;

Under the covers the macro expands to something similar to:

extern crate ui_sbase_cmy_urust_ulib as my_rust_lib;

use my_rust_lib::my_function_under_test;

More information can be found in the doc comment of the chromium::import macro.

Testing exercise

Time for another exercise!

In your Chromium build:

• Add a testable function next to hello_from_rust. Some suggestions: adding two integers received as arguments, computing the nth Fibonacci number, summing integers in a slice, etc.
• Add a separate ..._unittest.rs file with a test for the new function.
• Add the new tests to BUILD.gn.
• Build the tests, run them, and verify that the new test works.

C++ ile Birlikte Çalışabilirlik

The Rust community offers multiple options for C++/Rust interop, with new tools being developed all the time. At the moment, Chromium uses a tool called CXX.

You describe your whole language boundary in an interface definition language (which looks a lot like Rust) and then CXX tools generate declarations for functions and types in both Rust and C++.

See the CXX tutorial for a full example of using this.

Bağlamalara Örnek

CXX requires that the whole C++/Rust boundary is declared in cxx::bridge modules inside .rs source code.

#[cxx::bridge]
mod ffi {
    extern "Rust" {
        type MultiBuf;

        fn next_chunk(buf: &mut MultiBuf) -> &[u8];
    }

    unsafe extern "C++" {
        include!("example/include/blobstore.h");

        type BlobstoreClient;

        fn new_blobstore_client() -> UniquePtr<BlobstoreClient>;
        fn put(self: &BlobstoreClient, buf: &mut MultiBuf) -> Result<u64>;
    }
}

// Definitions of Rust types and functions go here

CXX'in Sınırlamaları

By far the most useful page when using CXX is the type reference.

CXX fundamentally suits cases where:

• Your Rust-C++ interface is sufficiently simple that you can declare all of it.
• You're using only the types natively supported by CXX already, for example std::unique_ptr, std::string, &[u8] etc.

It has many limitations --- for example lack of support for Rust's Option type.

These limitations constrain us to using Rust in Chromium only for well isolated "leaf nodes" rather than for arbitrary Rust-C++ interop. When considering a use-case for Rust in Chromium, a good starting point is to draft the CXX bindings for the language boundary to see if it appears simple enough.

CXX Hata İşleme

CXX's support for Result<T,E> relies on C++ exceptions, so we can't use that in Chromium. Alternatives:

• The T part of Result<T, E> can be:

  • Returned via out parameters (e.g. via &mut T). This requires that T can be passed across the FFI boundary - for example T has to be:
    • A primitive type (like u32 or usize)
    • A type natively supported by cxx (like UniquePtr<T>) that has a suitable default value to use in a failure case (unlike Box<T>).
  • Retained on the Rust side, and exposed via reference. This may be needed when T is a Rust type, which cannot be passed across the FFI boundary, and cannot be stored in UniquePtr<T>.

• The E part of Result<T, E> can be:

  • Returned as a boolean (e.g. true representing success, and false representing failure)
  • Preserving error details is in theory possible, but so far hasn't been needed in practice.